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effected by the soldiers； the Radicals； or the Conservatives； &c。
The new laws and institutions will depend on the interests of the
triumphant party and of the classes which have assisted itthe
clergy for instance。
If the revolution has triumphed only after a violent struggle； as
was the case with the French Revolution； the victors will reject
at one sweep the whole arsenal of the old law。 The supporters of
the fallen regime will be persecuted； exiled； or exterminated。
The maximum of violence in these persecutions is attained when
the triumphant party is defending a belief in addition to its
material interests。 Then the conquered need hope for no pity。
Thus may be explained the expulsion of the Moors from Spain； the
autodafes of the Inquisition； the executions of the
Convention； and the recent laws against the religious
congregations in France。
The absolute power which is assumed by the victors leads them
sometimes to extreme measures； such as the Convention's decree
that gold was to be replaced by paper； that goods were to be sold
at determined prices； &c。 Very soon it runs up against a wall of
unavoidable necessities； which turn opinion against its tyranny；
and finally leave it defenceless before attack； as befell at the
end of the French Revolution。 The same thing happened
recently to a Socialist Australian ministry composed almost
exclusively of working…men。 It enacted laws so absurd； and
accorded such privileges to the trade unions； that public opinion
rebelled against it so unanimously that in three months it was
overthrown。
But the cases we have considered are exceptional。 The majority
of revolutions have been accomplished in order to place a new
sovereign in power。 Now this sovereign knows very well that the
first condition of maintaining his power consists in not too
exclusively favouring a single class； but in seeking to
conciliate all。 To do this he will establish a sort of
equilibrium between them； so as not to be dominated by any one of
these classes。 To allow one class to become predominant is to
condemn himself presently to accept that class as his master。
This law is one of the most certain of political psychology。 The
kings of France understood it very well when they struggled so
energetically against the encroachments first of the nobility and
then of the clergy。 If they had not done so their fate would
have been that of the German Emperors of the Middle Ages； who；
excommunicated by the Pope； were reduced； like Henry IV。 at
Canossa； to make a pilgrimage and humbly to sue for the Pope's
forgiveness。
This same law has continually been verified during the course of
history。 When at the end of the Roman Empire the military caste
became preponderant； the emperors depended entirely upon their
soldiers； who appointed and deposed them at will。
It was therefore a great advantage for France that she was so
long governed by a monarch almost absolute； supposed to
hold his power by divine right； and surrounded therefore by a
considerable prestige。 Without such an authority he could have
controlled neither the feudal nobility； nor the clergy； nor the
parliaments。 If Poland； towards the end of the sixteenth
century； had also possessed an absolute and respected monarchy；
she would not have descended the path of decadence which led to
her disappearance from the map of Europe。
We have shewn in this chapter that political revolutions may be
accompanied by important social transformations。 We shall soon
see how slight are these transformations compared to those
produced by religious revolutions。
CHAPTER II
RELIGIOUS REVOLUTIONS
1。 The importance of the study of Religious Revolutions in
respect of the comprehension of the great Political Revolutions。
A portion of this work will be devoted to the French Revolution。
It was full of acts of violence which naturally had their
psychological causes。
These exceptional events will always fill us with astonishment；
and we even feel them to be inexplicable。 They become
comprehensible； however； if we consider that the French
Revolution； constituting a new religion； was bound to obey the
laws which condition the propagation of all beliefs。 Its fury
and its hecatombs will then become intelligible。
In studying the history of a great religious revolution； that of
the Reformation； we shall see that a number of psychological
elements which figured therein were equally active during the
French Revolution。 In both we observe the insignificant bearing
of the rational value of a belief upon its propagation； the
inefficacy of persecution； the impossibility of tolerance between
contrary beliefs； and the violence and the desperate struggles
resulting from the conflict of different faiths。 We also observe
the exploitation of a belief by interests quite independent
of that belief。 Finally we see that it is impossible to modify
the convictions of men without also modifying their existence。
These phenomena verified； we shall see plainly why the gospel of
the Revolution was propagated by the same methods as all the
religious gospels； notably that of Calvin。 It could not have
been propagated otherwise。
But although there are close analogies between the genesis of a
religious revolution； such as the Reformation； and that of a
great political revolution like our own； their remote
consequences are very different； which explains the difference of
duration which they display。 In religious revolutions no
experience can reveal to the faithful that they are deceived；
since they would have to go to heaven to make the discovery。 In
political revolutions experience quickly demonstrates the error
of a false doctrine and forces men to abandon it。
Thus at the end of the Directory the application of Jacobin
beliefs had led France to such a degree of ruin； poverty； and
despair that the wildest Jacobins themselves had to renounce
their system。 Nothing survived of their theories except a few
principles which cannot be verified by experience； such as the
universal happiness which equality should bestow upon humanity。
2。 The beginnings of the Reformation and its first disciples。
The Reformation was finally to exercise a profound influence upon
the sentiments and moral ideas of a great proportion of mankind。
Modest in its beginnings； it was at first a simple struggle
against the abuses of the clergy； and； from a practical point of
view； a return to the prescriptions of the Gospel。 It never
constituted； as has been claimed； an aspiration towards freedom
of thought。 Calvin was as intolerant as Robespierre； and all the
theorists of the age considered that the religion of subjects
must be that of the prince who governed them。 Indeed in every
country where the Reformation was established the sovereign
replaced the Pope of Rome； with the same rights and the same
powers。
In France； in default of publicity and means of communication；
the new faith spread slowly enough at first。 It was about 1520
that Luther recruited a few adepts； and only towards 1535 was the
new belief sufficiently widespread for men to consider it
necessary to burn its disciples。
In conformity with a well…known psychological law； these
executions merely favoured the propagation of the Reformation。
Its first followers included priests and magistrates； but were
principally obscure artisans。 Their conversion was effected
almost exclusively by mental contagion and suggestion。
As soon as a new belief extends itself； we see grouped round it
many persons who are indifferent to the belief； but who find in
it a pretext or opportunity for gratifying their passions or
their greed。 This phenomenon was observed at the time of the
Reformation in many countries； notably in Germany and in England。
Luther having taught that the clergy had no need of wealth； the
German lords found many merits in a faith which enabled them to
seize upon the goods of the Church。 Henry VIII。 enriched
himself by a similar operation。 Sovereigns who were often
molested by the Pope could as a rule only look favourably upon a
doctrine which added religious powers to their political powers
and made each of them a Pope。 Far from diminishing the
absolutism of rulers； the Reformation only exaggerated it。
3。 Rational value of the doctrines of the Reformation。
The Reformation overturned all Europe； and came near to ruining
France； of which it made a battle…field for a period of fifty
years。 Never did a cause so insignificant from the rational
point of view produce such great results。
Here is one of the innumerable proofs of the fact that beliefs
are propagated independently of all reason。 The theological
doctrines which aroused men's passions so violently； and notably
those of Calvin； are not even worthy of examination