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them。
＇14＇ The impotence of ministers in their own departments has been
well described by one of them； M。 Cruppi； in a recent book。 The
most ardent wishes of the minister being immediately paralysed by
his department； he promptly ceases to struggle against it。
This diminution of the power of democratic Governments can
only develop。 One of the most constant laws of history is that
of which I have already spoken： Immediately any one class
becomes preponderantnobles； clergy； army； or the peopleit
speedily tends to enslave others。 Such were the Roman armies；
which finally appointed and overthrew the emperors； such were the
clergy； against whom the kings of old could hardly struggle； such
were the States General； which at the moment of Revolution
speedily absorbed all the powers of government； and supplanted
the monarchy。
The caste of functionaries is destined to furnish a fresh proof
of the truth of this law。 Preponderant already； they are
beginning to speak loudly； to make threats； and even to indulge
in strikes； such as that of the postmen； which was quickly
followed by that of the Government railway employees。 The
administrative power thus forms a little State within the State；
and if its present rate of revolution continues it will soon
constitute the only power in the State。 Under a Socialist
Government there would be no other power。 All our revolutions
would then have resulted in stripping the king of his powers and
his throne in order to bestow them upon the irresponsible；
anonymous and despotic class of Government clerks。
To foresee the issue of all the conflicts which threaten to cloud
the future is impossible。 We must steer clear of pessimism as of
optimism； all we can say is that necessity will always finally
bring things to an equilibrium。 The world pursues its way
without bothering itself with our speeches； and sooner or later
we manage to adapt ourselves to the variations of our
environment。 The difficulty is to do so without too much
friction； and above all to resist the chimerical conceptions of
dreamers。 Always powerless to re…organise the world； they have
often contrived to upset it。
Athens； Rome； Florence； and many other cities which formerly
shone in history； were victims of these terrible theorists。 The
results of their influence has always been the sameanarchy；
dictatorship； and decadence。
But such lessons will not affect the numerous Catilines of the
present day。 They do not yet see that the movements unchained by
their ambitions threaten to submerge them。 All these Utopians
have awakened impossible hopes in the mind of the crowd； excited
their appetites； and sapped the dykes which have been slowly
erected during the centuries to restrain them。
The struggle of the blind multitudes against the elect is one of
the continuous facts of history； and the triumph of popular
sovereignties without counterpoise has already marked the end of
more than one civilisation。 The elect create； the plebs
destroys。 As soon as the first lose their hold the latter begins
its precious work。
The great civilisations have only prospered by dominating their
lower elements。 It is not only in Greece that anarchy；
dictatorship； invasion； and； finally； the loss of independence
has resulted from the despotism of a democracy。 Individual
tyranny is always born of collective tyranny。 It ended the first
cycle of the greatness of Rome； the Barbarians achieved the
second。
CONCLUSIONS
The principal revolutions of history have been studied in this
volume。 But we have dealt more especially with the most
important of allthat which for more than twenty years
overwhelmed all Europe； and whose echoes are still to be heard。
The French Revolution is an inexhaustible mine of psychological
documents。 No period of the life of humanity has presented such
a mass of experience； accumulated in so short a time。
On each page of this great drama we have found numerous
applications of the principles expounded in my various works；
concerning the transitory mentality of crowds and the permanent
soul of the peoples； the action of beliefs； the influence of
mystic； affective； and collective elements； and the conflict
between the various forms of logic。
The Revolutionary Assemblies illustrate all the known laws of the
psychology of crowds。 Impulsive and timid； they are dominated by
a small number of leaders； and usually act in a sense contrary to
the wishes of their individual members。
The Royalist Constituent Assembly destroyed an ancient monarchy；
the humanitarian Legislative Assembly allowed the massacres of
September。 The same pacific body led France into the most
formidable campaigns。
There were similar contradictions during the Convention。 The
immense majority of its members abhorred violence。 Sentimental
philosophers； they exalted equality； fraternity； and liberty； yet
ended by exerting the most terrible despotism。
The same contradictions were visible during the Directory。
Extremely moderate in their intentions at the outset； the
Assemblies were continually effecting bloodthirsty coups
d'etat。 They wished to re…establish religious peace； and
finally sent thousands of priests into imprisonment。 They wished
to repair the ruins which covered France； and only succeeded in
adding to them。
Thus there was always a complete contradiction between the
individual wills of the men of the revolutionary period and the
deeds of the Assemblies of which they were units。
The truth is that they obeyed invisible forces of which they were
not the masters。 Believing that they acted in the name of pure
reason； they were really subject to mystic； affective； and
collective influences； incomprehensible to them； and which we are
only to…day beginning to understand。
Intelligence has progressed in the course of the ages； and has
opened a marvellous outlook to man； although his character； the
real foundation of his mind； and the sure motive of his actions；
has scarcely changed。 Overthrown one moment； it reappears the
next。 Human nature must be accepted as it is。
The founders of the Revolution did not resign themselves to the
facts of human nature。 For the first time in the history
of humanity they attempted to transform men and society in the
name of reason。
Never was any undertaking commenced with such chances of success。
The theorists； who claimed to effect it； had a power in their
hands greater than that of any despot。
Yet； despite this power； despite the success of the armies；
despite Draconian laws and repeated coups d'etat； the
Revolution merely heaped ruin upon ruin； and ended in a
dictatorship。
Such an attempt was not useless； since experience is necessary to
the education of the peoples。 Without the Revolution it would
have been difficult to prove that pure reason does not enable us
to change human nature； and； consequently； that no society can be
rebuilt by the will of legislators； however absolute their power。
Commenced by the middle classes for their own profit； the
Revolution speedily became a popular movement； and at the same
time a struggle of the instinctive against the rational； a revolt
against all the constraints which make civilisation out of
barbarism。 It was by relying on the principle of popular
sovereignty that the reformers attempted to impose their
doctrines。 Guided by leaders； the people intervened incessantly
in the deliberations of the Assemblies； and committed the most
sanguinary acts of violence。
The history of the multitudes during the Revolution is eminently
instructive。 It shows the error of the politicians who attribute
all the virtues to the popular soul。
The facts of the Revolution teach us； on the contrary； that a
people freed from social constraints； the foundations of
civilisation； and abandoned to its instinctive impulses； speedily
relapses into its ancestral savagery。 Every popular revolution
which succeeds in triumphing is a temporary return to barbarism。
If the Commune of 1871 had lasted； it would have repeated the
Terror。 Not having the power to kill so many people； it had to
confine itself to burning the principal monuments of the capital。
The Revolution represents the conflict of psychological forces
liberated from the bonds whose function it is to restrain them。
Popular instincts； Jacobin beliefs； ancestral influences；
appetites； and passions unloosed； all these various influences
engaged in a furious mutual conflict for the space of ten years；
during which time they soaked France in blood and covered the
land with ruins。
Seen from a distance； this seems to be the whole upshot of the
Revolution。 There was nothing homogeneous about it。 One must
resort to analysis before one can understand and grasp the great
drama and dis