按键盘上方向键 ← 或 → 可快速上下翻页，按键盘上的 Enter 键可回到本书目录页，按键盘上方向键 ↑ 可回到本页顶部！
————未阅读完？加入书签已便下次继续阅读！
We must not hope to see peoples possessed by strong beliefs
readily achieve tolerance。 The only people who attained to
toleration in the ancient world were the polytheists。 The
nations which practise toleration at the present time are those
that might well be termed polytheistical； since； as in England
and America； they are divided into innumerable sects。
Under identical names they really adore very different deities。
The multiplicity of beliefs which results in such toleration
finally results also in weakness。 We therefore come to a
psychological problem not hitherto resolved： how to possess a
faith at once powerful and tolerant。
The foregoing brief explanation reveals the large part played by
religious revolutions and the power of beliefs。 Despite their
slight rational value they shape history； and prevent the peoples
from remaining a mass of individuals without cohesion or
strength。 Man has needed them at all times to orientate his
thought and guide his conduct。 No philosophy has as yet
succeeded in replacing them。
CHAPTER III
THE ACTION OF GOVERNMENTS IN REVOLUTIONS
1。 The feeble resistance of Governments in time of Revolution。
Many modern nationsFrance； Spain； Italy； Austria； Poland；
Japan； Turkey； Portugal； &c。have known revolutions within the
last century。 These were usually characterised by their
instantaneous quality and the facility with which the governments
attacked were overthrown。
The instantaneous nature of these revolutions is explained by the
rapidity of mental contagion due to modern methods of publicity。
The slight resistance of the governments attacked is more
surprising。 It implies a total inability to comprehend and
foresee created by a blind confidence in their own strength。
The facility with which governments fall is not however a new
phenomenon。 It has been proved more than once； not only in
autocratic systems； which are always overturned by palace
conspiracies； but also in governments perfectly instructed in the
state of public opinion by the press and their own agents。
Among these instantaneous downfalls one of the most striking was
that which followed the Ordinances of Charles X。 This monarch
was； as we know； overthrown in four days。 His minister
Polignac had taken no measures of defence； and the king was so
confident of the tranquillity of Paris that he had gone hunting。
The army was not in the least hostile； as in the reign of Louis
XVI。； but the troops； badly officered； disbanded before the
attacks of a few insurgents。
The overthrow of Louis…Philippe was still more typical； since it
did not result from any arbitrary action on the part of the
sovereign。 This monarch was not surrounded by the hatred which
finally surrounded Charles X。； and his fall was the result of an
insignificant riot which could easily have been repressed。
Historians； who can hardly comprehend how a solidly constituted
government； supported by an imposing army； can be overthrown by a
few rioters； naturally attributed the fall of Louis…Philippe to
deep…seated causes。 In reality the incapacity of the generals
entrusted with his defence was the real cause of his fall。
This case is one of the most instructive that could be cited； and
is worthy of a moment's consideration。 It has been perfectly
investigated by General Bonnal； in the light of the notes of an
eye…witness； General Elchingen。 Thirty…six thousand troops were
then in Paris； but the weakness and incapacity of their officers
made it impossible to use them。 Contradictory orders were given；
and finally the troops were forbidden to fire on the people； who；
moreoverand nothing could have been more dangerouswere
permitted to mingle with the troops。 The riot succeeded without
fighting and forced the king to abdicate。
Applying to the preceding case our knowledge of the
psychology of crowds； General Bonnal shows how easily the riot
which overthrew Louis…Philippe could have been controlled。 He
proves； notably； that if the commanding officers had not
completely lost their heads quite a small body of troops could
have prevented the insurgents from invading the Chamber of
Deputies。 This last； composed of monarchists； would certainly
have proclaimed the Count of Paris under the regency of his
mother。
Similar phenomena were observable in the revolutions of Spain and
Portugal。
These facts show the role of petty accessory circumstances
in great events； and prove that one must not speak too readily of
the general laws of history。 Without the riot which overthrew
Louis…Philippe； we should probably have seen neither the Republic
of 1848； nor the Second Empire； nor Sedan； nor the invasion； nor
the loss of Alsace。
In the revolutions of which I have just been speaking the army
was of no assistance to the government； but did not turn against
it。 It sometimes happens otherwise。 It is often the army which
effects the revolution； as in Turkey and Portugal。 The
innumerable revolutions of the Latin republics of America are
effected by the army。
When a revolution is effected by an army the new rulers naturally
fall under its domination。 I have already recalled the fact that
this was the case at the end of the Roman Empire； when the
emperors were made and unmade by the soldiery。
The same thing has sometimes been witnessed in modern times。 The
following extract from a newspaper； with reference to the
Greek revolution； shows what becomes of a government dominated by
its army：
‘‘One day it was announced that eighty officers of the navy would
send in their resignations if the government did not dismiss the
leaders of whom they complained。 Another time it was the
agricultural labourers on a farm （metairie） belonging to the
Crown Prince who demanded the partition of the soil among them。
The navy protested against the promotion promised to Colonel
Zorbas。 Colonel Zorbas； after a week of discussion with
Lieutenant Typaldos； treated with the President of the Council as
one power with another。 During this time the Federation of the
corporations abused the officers of the navy。 A deputy demanded
that these officers and their families should be treated as
brigands。 When Commander Miaoulis fired on the rebels； the
sailors； who first of all had obeyed Typaldos； returned to duty。
This is no longer the harmonious Greece of Pericles and
Themistocles。 It is a hideous camp of Agramant。''
A revolution cannot be effected without the assistance or at
least the neutrality of the army； but it often happens that the
movement commences without it。 This was the case with the
revolutions of 1830 and 1848； and that of 1870； which overthrew
the Empire after the humiliation of France by the surrender of
Sedan。
The majority of revolutions take place in the capitals； and by
means of contagion spread through the country； but this is not a
constant rule。 We know that during the French Revolution La
Vendee； Brittany； and the Midi revolted spontaneously against
Paris。
2。 How the resistance of Governments may overcome Revolution。
In the greater number of the revolutions enumerated above； we
have seen governments perish by their weakness。 As soon as they
were touched they fell。
The Russian Revolution proved that a government which defends
itself energetically may finally triumph。
Never was revolution more menacing to the government。 After the
disasters suffered in the Orient； and the severities of a too
oppressive autocratic regime； all classes of society； including a
portion of the army and the fleet； had revolted。 The railways；
posts； and telegraph services had struck； so that communications
between the various portions of the vast empire were interrupted。
The rural class itself； forming the majority of the nation； began
to feel the influence of the revolutionary propaganda。 The lot
of the peasants was wretched。 They were obliged； by the system
of the mir； to cultivate soil which they could not acquire。 The
government resolved immediately to conciliate this large class of
peasants by turning them into proprietors。 Special laws forced
the landlords to sell the peasants a portion of their lands； and
banks intended to lend the buyers the necessary purchase…money
were created。 The sums lent were to be repaid by small annuities
deducted from the product of the sale of the crops。
Assured of the neutrality of the peasants； the government could
contend with the fanatics who were burning the towns； throwing
bombs among the crowds； and waging a merciless warfare。 All
those who could be taken were killed。 Such extermination is the
only method discovered since the beginning of the world by which
a society can be protected against the rebels who wish to destroy
it。
The victorious government understood moreover the necessity of
satisfying t