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their theory covers the former identification also。
Chapter 49。 Ancient Deities of Vegetation as Animals。
1。 Dionysus； the Goat and the Bull。
HOWEVER we may explain it； the fact remains that in peasant folk…lore the corn…spirit is very commonly conceived and represented in animal form。 May not this fact explain the relation in which certain animals stood to the ancient deities of vegetation； Dionysus； Demeter； Adonis； Attis； and Osiris？
To begin with Dionysus。 We have seen that he was represented sometimes as a goat and sometimes as a bull。 As a goat he can hardly be separated from the minor divinities； the Pans； Satyrs； and Silenuses； all of whom are closely associated with him and are represented more or less completely in the form of goats。 Thus； Pan was regularly portrayed in sculpture and painting with the face and legs of a goat。 The Satyrs were depicted with pointed goat…ears； and sometimes with sprouting horns and short tails。 They were sometimes spoken of simply as goats； and in the drama their parts were played by men dressed in goatskins。 Silenus is represented in art clad in a goatskin。 Further； the Fauns； the Italian counterpart of the Greek Pans and Satyrs； are described as being half goats； with goat…feet and goat…horns。 Again； all these minor goat…formed divinities partake more or less clearly of the character of woodland deities。 Thus； Pan was called by the Arcadians the Lord of the Wood。 The Silenuses kept company with the tree…nymphs。 The Fauns are expressly designated as woodland deities； and their character as such is still further brought out by their association； or even identification； with Silvanus and the Silvanuses； who； as their name of itself indicates； are spirits of the woods。 Lastly； the association of the Satyrs with the Silenuses； Fauns； and Silvanuses； proves that the Satyrs also were woodland deities。 These goat…formed spirits of the woods have their counterparts in the folk…lore of Northern Europe。 Thus； the Russian wood…spirits； called Ljeschie （from ljes； wood）； are believed to appear partly in human shape； but with the horns； ears； and legs of goats。 The Ljeschi can alter his stature at pleasure； when he walks in the wood he is as tall as the trees； when he walks in the meadows he is no higher than the grass。 Some of the Ljeschie are spirits of the corn as well as of the wood； before harvest they are as tall as the corn…stalks； but after it they shrink to the height of the stubble。 This brings outwhat we have remarked beforethe close connexion between tree…spirits and corn…spirits； and shows how easily the former may melt into the latter。 Similarly the Fauns； though wood…spirits； were believed to foster the growth of the crops。 We have already seen how often the corn…spirit is represented in folk…custom as a goat。 On the whole； then； as Mannhardt argues； the Pans； Satyrs； and Fauns perhaps belong to a widely diffused class of wood…spirits conceived in goat…form。 The fondness of goats for straying in woods and nibbling the bark of trees； to which indeed they are most destructive； is an obvious and perhaps sufficient reason why wood…spirits should so often be supposed to take the form of goats。 The inconsistency of a god of vegetation subsisting upon the vegetation which he personifies is not one to strike the primitive mind。 Such inconsistencies arise when the deity； ceasing to be immanent in the vegetation； comes to be regarded as its owner or lord； for the idea of owning the vegetation naturally leads to that of subsisting on it。 Sometimes the corn…spirit； originally conceived as immanent in the corn； afterwards comes to be regarded as its owner； who lives on it and is reduced to poverty and want by being deprived of it。 Hence he is often known as the Poor Man or the Poor Woman。 Occasionally the last sheaf is left standing on the field for the Poor Old Woman or for the Old Rye…woman。
Thus the representation of wood…spirits in the form of goats appears to be both widespread and； to the primitive mind； natural。 Therefore when we find； as we have done； that Dionysusa tree…godis sometimes represented in goat…form； we can hardly avoid concluding that this representation is simply a part of his proper character as a tree…god and is not to be explained by the fusion of two distinct and independent worships； in one of which he originally appeared as a tree…god and in the other as a goat。
Dionysus was also figured； as we have seen； in the shape of a bull。 After what has gone before we are naturally led to expect that his bull form must have been only another expression for his character as a deity of vegetation； especially as the bull is a common embodiment of the corn…spirit in Northern Europe； and the close association of Dionysus with Demeter and Persephone in the mysteries of Eleusis shows that he had at least strong agricultural affinities。
The probability of this view will be somewhat increased if it can be shown that in other rites than those of Dionysus the ancients slew an OX as a representative of the spirit of vegetation。 This they appear to have done in the Athenian sacrifice known as the murder of the OX （bouphonia）。 It took place about the end of June or beginning of July； that is； about the time when the threshing is nearly over in Attica。 According to tradition the sacrifice was instituted to procure a cessation of drought and dearth which had afflicted the land。 The ritual was as follows。 Barley mixed with wheat； or cakes made of them； were laid upon the bronze altar of Zeus Polieus on the Acropolis。 Oxen were driven round the altar； and the OX which went up to the altar and ate the offering on it was sacrificed。 The axe and knife with which the beast was slain had been previously wetted with water brought by maidens called water…carriers。 The weapons were then sharpened and handed to the butchers； one of whom felled the OX with the axe and another cut its throat with the knife。 As soon as he had felled the OX； the former threw the axe from him and fled； and the man who cut the beast's throat apparently imitated his
example。 Meantime the OX was skinned and all present partook of its flesh。 Then the hide was stuffed with straw and sewed up； next the stuffed animal was set on its feet and yoked to a plough as if it were ploughing。 A trial then took place in an ancient law…court presided over by the King （as he was called） to determine who had murdered the OX。 The maidens who had brought the water accused the men who had sharpened the axe and knife； the men who had sharpened the axe and knife blamed the men who had handed these implements to the butchers； the men who had handed the implements to the butchers blamed the butchers； and the butchers laid the blame on the axe and knife； which were accordingly found guilty； condemned； and cast into the sea。
The name of this sacrifice； the murder of the OX；the pains taken by each person who had a hand in the slaughter to lay the blame on some one else； together with the formal trial and punishment of the axe or knife or both； prove that the OX was here regarded not merely as a victim offered to a god； but as itself a sacred creature； the slaughter of which was sacrilege or murder。 This is borne out by a statement of Varro that to kill an OX was formerly a capital crime in Attica。 The mode of selecting the victim suggests that the OX which tasted the corn was viewed as the corn…deity taking possession of his own。 This interpretation is supported by the following custom。 In Beauce； in the district of Orleans； on the twenty…fourth or twenty…fifth of April they make a straw man called the great mondard。 For they say that the old mondard is now dead and it is necessary to make a new one。 The straw man is carried in solemn procession up and down the village and at last is placed upon the oldest apple…tree。 There he remains till the apples are gathered； when he is taken down and thrown into the water； or he is burned and his ashes cast into water。 But the person who plucks the first fruit from the tree succeeds to the title of the great mondard。 Here the straw figure； called the great mondard and placed on the oldest apple…tree in spring； represents the spirit of the tree； who； dead in winter； revives when the apple…blossoms appear on the boughs。 Thus the person who plucks the first fruit from the tree and thereby receives the name of the great mondard must be regarded as a representative of the tree…spirit。 Primitive peoples are usually reluctant to taste the annual first…fruits of any crop； until some ceremony has been performed which makes it safe and pious for them to do so。 The reason of this reluctance appears to be a belief that the first…fruits either belong to or actually contain a divinity。 Therefore when a man or animal is seen boldly to appropriate the sacred first…fruits； he or it is naturally regarded as the divinity himself in human or animal form taking possession of his own。 The time of the Athenian sacrifice； which fell about the close of the threshing； suggests that the wheat and barley laid upon the altar were a harvest offering； and the sacramental character of the subsequent repastall partaking of the flesh of the divine animalwould make it parallel to the harvest…suppers of modern Europe； in which； as we ha