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self was killed； for thus the killing of the pig was the annual representation of the killing of Osiris； just as the throwing of the pigs into the caverns at the Thesmophoria was an annual representation of the descent of Persephone into the lower world； and both customs are parallel to the European practice of killing a goat； cock； and so forth； at harvest as a representative of the corn…spirit。
Again； the theory that the pig； originally Osiris himself； afterwards came to be regarded as an embodiment of his enemy Typhon； is supported by the similar relation of red…haired men and red oxen to Typhon。 For in regard to the red…haired men who were burned and whose ashes were scattered with winnowing…fans； we have seen fair grounds for believing that originally； like the red…haired puppies killed at Rome in spring； they were representatives of the corn…spirit himself that is； of Osiris； and were slain for the express purpose of making the corn turn red or golden。 Yet at a later time these men were explained to be representatives； not of Osiris； but of his enemy Typhon； and the killing of them was regarded as an act of vengeance inflicted on the enemy of the god。 Similarly； the red oxen sacrificed by the Egyptians were said to be offered on the ground of their resemblance to Typhon； though it is more likely that originally they were slain on the ground of their resemblance to the corn…spirit Osiris。 We have seen that the ox is a common representative of the corn…spirit and is slain as such on the harvest…field。
Osiris was regularly identified with the bull Apis of Memphis and the bull Mnevis of Heliopolis。 But it is hard to say whether these bulls were embodiments of him as the corn…spirit； as the red oxen appear to have been； or whether they were not in origin entirely distinct deities who came to be fused with Osiris at a later time。 The universality of the worship of these two bulls seems to put them on a different footing from the ordinary sacred animals whose worships were purely local。 But whatever the original relation of Apis to Osiris may have been； there is one fact about the former which ought not to be passed over in a disquisition on the custom of killing a god。 Although the bull Apis was worshipped as a god with much pomp and profound reverence； he was not suffered to live beyond a certain length of time which was prescribed by the sacred books； and on the expiry of which he was drowned in a holy spring。 The limit； according to Plutarch； was twenty…five years； but it cannot always have been enforced； for the tombs of the Apis bulls have been discovered in modern times； and from the inscriptions on them it appears that in the twenty…second dynasty two of the holy steers lived more than twenty…six years。
5。 Virbius and theHorse。
WE are now in a position to hazard a conjecture as to the meaning of the tradition that Virbius； the first of the divine Kings of the Wood at Aricia； had been killed in the character of Hippolytus by horses。 Having found； first； that spirits of the corn are not infrequently represented in the form of horses； and； second； that the animal which in later legends is said to have injured the god was sometimes originally the god himself； we may conjecture that the horses by which Virbius or Hippolytus was said to have been slain were really embodiments of him as a deity of vegetation。 The myth that he had been killed by horses was probably invented to explain certain features in his worship； amongst others the custom of excluding horses from his sacred grove。 For myth changes while custom remains constant； men continue to do what their fathers did before them； though the reasons on which their fathers acted have been long forgotten。 The history of religion is a long attempt to reconcile old custom with new reason； to find a sound theory for an absurd practice。 In the case before us we may be sure that the myth is more modern than the custom and by no means represents the original reason for excluding horses from the grove。 From their exclusion it might be inferred that horses could not be the sacred animals or embodiments of the god of the grove。 But the inference would be rash。 The goat was at one time a sacred animal or embodiment of Athena； as may be inferred from the practice of representing the goddess clad in a goat…skin （aegis）。 Yet the goat was neither sacrificed to her as a rule； nor allowed to enter her great sanctuary； the Acropolis at Athens。 The reason alleged for this was that the goat injured the olive； the sacred tree of Athena。 So far； therefore； the relation of the goat to Athena is parallel to the relation of the horse to Virbius； both animals being excluded from the sanctuary on the ground of injury done by them to the god。 But from Varro we learn that there was an exception to the rule which excluded the goat from the Acropolis。 Once a year； he says； the goat was driven on to the Acropolis for a necessary sacrifice。 Now； as has been remarked before； when an animal is sacrificed once and once only in the year； it is probably slain； not as a victim offered to the god； but as a representative of the god himself。 Therefore we may infer that if a goat was sacrificed on the Acropolis once a year； it was sacrificed in the character of Athena herself； and it may be conjectured that the skin of the sacrificed animal was placed on the statue of the goddess and formed the aegis； which would thus be renewed annually。 Similarly at Thebes in Egypt rams were sacred and were not sacrificed。 But on one day in the year a ram was killed； and its skin was placed on the statue of the god Ammon。 Now； if we knew the ritual of the Arician grove better； we might find that the rule of excluding horses from it； like the rule of excluding goats from the Acropolis at Athens； was subject to an annual exception； a horse being once a year taken into the grove and sacrificed as an embodiment of the god Virbius。 By the usual misunderstanding the horse thus killed would come in time to be regarded as an enemy offered up in sacrifice to the god whom he had injured； like the pig which was sacrificed to Demeter and Osiris or the goat which was sacrificed to Dionysus； and possibly to Athena。 It is so easy for a writer to record a rule without noticing an exception that we need not wonder at finding the rule of the Arician grove recorded without any mention of an exception such as I suppose。 If we had had only the statements of Athenaeus and Pliny； we should have known only the rule which forbade the sacrifice of goats to Athena and excluded them from the Acropolis； without being aware of the important exception which the fortunate preservation of Varro's work has revealed to us。
The conjecture that once a year a horse may have been sacrificed in the Arician grove as a representative of the deity of the grove derives some support from the similar sacrifice of a horse which took place once a year at Rome。 On the fifteenth of October in each year a chariot…race was run on the Field of Mars。 Stabbed with a spear； the right…hand horse of the victorious team was then sacrificed to Mars for the purpose of ensuring good crops； and its head was cut off and adorned with a string of loaves。 Thereupon the inhabitants of two wardsthe Sacred Way and the Suburacontended with each other who should get the head。 If the people of the Sacred Way got it； they fastened it to a wall of the king's house； if the people of the Subura got it； they fastened it to the Mamilian tower。 The horse's tail was cut off and carried to the king's house with such speed that the blood dripped on the hearth of the house。 Further； it appears that the blood of the horse was caught and preserved till the twenty…first of April； when the Vestal Virgins mixed it with the blood of the unborn calves which had been sacrificed six days before。 The mixture was then distributed to shepherds； and used by them for fumigating their flocks。
In this ceremony the decoration of the horse's head with a string of loaves； and the alleged object of the sacrifice； namely； to procure a good harvest； seem to indicate that the horse was killed as one of those animal representatives of the corn…spirit of which we have found so many examples。 The custom of cutting off the horse's tail is like the African custom of cutting off the tails of the oxen and sacrificing them to obtain a good crop。 In both the Roman and the African custom the animal apparently stands for the corn…spirit； and its fructifying power is supposed to reside especially in its tail。 The latter idea occurs； as we have seen； in European folk…lore。 Again； the practice of fumigating the cattle in spring with the blood of the horse may be compared with the practice of giving the Old Wife； the Maiden； or the clyack sheaf as fodder to the horses in spring or the cattle at Christmas； and giving the Yule Boar to the ploughing oxen or horses to eat in spring。 All these usages aim at ensuring the blessing of the corn…spirit on the homestead and its inmates and storing it up for another year。
The Roman sacrifice of the October horse； as it was called； carries us back to the early days when the Subura； afterwards a low and squalid quarter of the great metropolis； was still a separate village； whose inhabitants engaged in a