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s fruit…trees and his copses； it was to Mars that the priestly college of the Arval Brothers； whose business it was to sacrifice for the growth of the crops； addressed their petitions almost exclusively； and it was to Mars； as we saw； that a horse was sacrificed in October to secure an abundant harvest。 Moreover； it was to Mars； under his title of Mars of the woods （Mars Silvanus）； that farmers offered sacrifice for the welfare of their cattle。 We have already seen that cattle are commonly supposed to be under the special patronage of tree…gods。 Once more； the consecration of the vernal month of March to Mars seems to point him out as the deity of the sprouting vegetation。 Thus the Roman custom of expelling the old Mars at the beginning of the new year in spring is identical with the Slavonic custom of carrying out Death； if the view here taken of the latter custom is correct。 The similarity of the Roman and Slavonic customs has been already remarked by scholars； who appear； however； to have taken Mamurius Veturius and the corresponding figures in the Slavonic ceremonies to be representatives of the old year rather than of the old god of vegetation。 It is possible that ceremonies of this kind may have come to be thus interpreted in later times even by the people who practised them。 But the personification of a period of time is too abstract an idea to be primitive。 However； in the Roman； as in the Slavonic； ceremony； the representative of the god appears to have been treated not only as a deity of vegetation but also as a scapegoat。 His expulsion implies this； for there is no reason why the god of vegetation； as such； should be expelled the city。 But it is otherwise if he is also a scapegoat； it then becomes necessary to drive him beyond the boundaries； that he may carry his sorrowful burden away to other lands。 And； in fact； Mamurius Veturius appears to have been driven away to the land of the Oscans； the enemies of Rome。
2。 The Human Scapegoat in Ancient Greece
THE ANCIENT Greeks were also familiar with the use of a human scapegoat。 In Plutarch's native town of Chaeronea a ceremony of this kind was performed by the chief magistrate at the Town Hall； and by each householder at his own home。 It was called the expulsion of hunger。 A slave was beaten with rods of the agnus castus； and turned out of doors with the words； Out with hunger； and in with wealth and health。 When Plutarch held the office of chief magistrate of his native town he performed this ceremony at the Town Hall； and he has recorded the discussion to which the custom afterwards gave rise。
But in civilised Greece the custom of the scapegoat took darker forms than the innocent rite over which the amiable and pious Plutarch presided。 Whenever Marseilles； one of the busiest and most brilliant of Greek colonies； was ravaged by a plague； a man of the poorer classes used to offer himself as a scapegoat。 For a whole year he was maintained at the public expense； being fed on choice and pure food。 At the expiry of the year he was dressed in sacred garments； decked with holy branches； and led through the whole city； while prayers were uttered that all the evils of the people might fall on his head。 He was then cast out of the city or stoned to death by the people outside of the walls。 The Athenians regularly maintained a number of degraded and useless beings at the public expense； and when any calamity； such as plague； drought； or famine； befell the city； they sacrificed two of these outcast scapegoats。 One of the victims was sacrificed for the men and the other for the women。 The former wore round his neck a string of black； the latter a string of white figs。 Sometimes； it seems； the victim slain on behalf of the women was a woman。 They were led about the city and then sacrificed； apparently by being stoned to death outside the city。 But such sacrifices were not confined to extraordinary occasions of public calamity； it appears that every year； at the festival of the Thargelia in May； two victims； one for the men and one for the women； were led out of Athens and stoned to death。 The city of Abdera in Thrace was publicly purified once a year； and one of the burghers； set apart for the purpose； was stoned to death as a scapegoat or vicarious sacrifice for the life of all the others； six days before his execution he was excommunicated； in order that he alone might bear the sins of all the people。
From the Lover's Leap； a white bluff at the southern end of their island； the Leucadians used annually to hurl a criminal into the sea as a scapegoat。 But to lighten his fall they fastened live birds and feathers to him； and a flotilla of small boats waited below to catch him and convey him beyond the boundary。 Probably these humane precautions were a mitigation of an earlier custom of flinging the scapegoat into the sea to drown。 The Leucadian ceremony took place at the time of a sacrifice to Apollo； who had a temple or sanctuary on the spot。 Elsewhere it was customary to cast a young man every year into the sea； with the prayer； Be thou our offscouring。 This ceremony was supposed to rid the people of the evils by which they were beset； or according to a somewhat different interpretation it redeemed them by paying the debt they owed to the sea…god。 As practised by the Greeks of Asia Minor in the sixth century before our era； the custom of the scapegoat was as follows。 When a city suffered from plague； famine； or other public calamity； an ugly or deformed person was chosen to take upon himself all the evils which afflicted the community。 He was brought to a suitable place； where dried figs； a barley loaf； and cheese were put into his hand。 These he ate。 Then he was beaten seven times upon his genital organs with squills and branches of the wild fig and other wild trees； while the flutes played a particular tune。 Afterwards he was burned on a pyre built of the wood of forest trees； and his ashes were cast into the sea。 A similar custom appears to have been annually celebrated by the Asiatic Greeks at the harvest festival of the Thargelia。
In the ritual just described the scourging of the victim with squills； branches of the wild fig； and so forth； cannot have been intended to aggravate his sufferings； otherwise any stick would have been good enough to beat him with。 The true meaning of this part of the ceremony has been explained by W。 Mannhardt。 He points out that the ancients attributed to squills a magical power of averting evil influences； and that accordingly they hung them up at the doors of their houses and made use of them in purificatory rites。 Hence the Arcadian custom of whipping the image of Pan with squills at a festival； or whenever the hunters returned empty…handed； must have been meant； not to punish the god； but to purify him from the harmful influences which were impeding him in the exercise of his divine functions as a god who should supply the hunter with game。 Similarly the object of beating the human scapegoat on the genital organs with squills and so on； must have been to release his reproductive energies from any restraint or spell under which they might be laid by demoniacal or other malignant agency； and as the Thargelia at which he was annually sacrificed was an early harvest festival celebrated in May； we must recognise in him a representative of the creative and fertilising god of vegetation。 The representative of the god was annually slain for the purpose I have indicated； that of maintaining the divine life in perpetual vigour； untainted by the weakness of age； and before he was put to death it was not unnatural to stimulate his reproductive powers in order that these might be transmitted in full activity to his successor； the new god or new embodiment of the old god； who was doubtless supposed immediately to take the place of the one slain。 Similar reasoning would lead to a similar treatment of the scapegoat on special occasions； such as drought or famine。 If the crops did not answer to the expectation of the husbandman； this would be attributed to some failure in the generative powers of the god whose function it was to produce the fruits of the earth。 It might be thought that he was under a spell or was growing old and feeble。 Accordingly he was slain in the person of his representative； with all the ceremonies already described； in order that； born young again； he might infuse his own youthful vigour into the stagnant energies of nature。 On the same principle we can understand why Mamurius Veturius was beaten with rods； why the slave at the Chaeronean ceremony was beaten with the agnus castus （a tree to which magical properties were ascribed）； why the effigy of Death in some parts of Europe is assailed with sticks and stones； and why at Babylon the criminal who played the god scourged before he was crucified。 The purpose of the scourging was not to intensify the agony of the divine sufferer； but on the contrary to dispel any malignant influences by which at the supreme moment he might conceivably be beset。
Thus far I have assumed that the human victims at the Thargelia represented the spirits of vegetation in general； but it has been well remarked by Mr。 W。 R。 Paton that these poor wretches seem to have masqueraded as the spirits of fig…trees i