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e actually to pass over the ground which is to receive its quickening and kindly influence。 Once more； the custom of carrying lighted brands round cattle is plainly equivalent to driving the animals through the bonfire； and if the bonfire is a suncharm； the torches must be so also。
3。 The Purificatory Theory of the Fire…festivals
THUS far we have considered what may be said for the theory that at the European fire…festivals the fire is kindled as a charm to ensure an abundant supply of sunshine for man and beast； for corn and fruits。 It remains to consider what may be said against this theory and in favour of the view that in these rites fire is employed not as a creative but as a cleansing agent； which purifies men； animals； and plants by burning up and consuming the noxious elements； whether material or spiritual； which menace all living things with disease and death。
First； then； it is to be observed that the people who practise the fire…customs appear never to allege the solar theory in explanation of them； while on the contrary they do frequently and emphatically put forward the purificatory theory。 This is a strong argument in favour of the purificatory and against the solar theory； for the popular explanation of a popular custom is never to be rejected except for grave cause。 And in the present case there seems to be no adequate reason for rejecting it。 The conception of fire as a destructive agent； which can be turned to account for the consumption of evil things； is so simple and obvious that it could hardly escape the minds even of the rude peasantry with whom these festivals originated。 On the other hand the conception of fire as an emanation of the sun； or at all events as linked to it by a bond of physical sympathy； is far less simple and obvious； and though the use of fire as a charm to produce sunshine appears to be undeniable； nevertheless in attempting to explain popular customs we should never have recourse to a more recondite idea when a simpler one lies to hand and is supported by the explicit testimony of the people themselves。 Now in the case of the fire…festivals the destructive aspect of fire is one upon which the people dwell again and again； and it is highly significant that the great evil against which the fire is directed appears to be witchcraft。 Again and again we are told that the fires are intended to burn or repel the witches； and the intention is sometimes graphically expressed by burning an effigy of a witch in the fire。 Hence； when we remember the great hold which the dread of witchcraft has had on the popular European mind in all ages； we may suspect that the primary intention of all these fire…festivals was simply to destroy or at all events get rid of the witches； who were regarded as the causes of nearly all the misfortunes and calamities that befall men； their cattle； and their crops。
This suspicion is confirmed when we examine the evils for which the bonfires and torches were supposed to provide a remedy。 Foremost； perhaps； among these evils we may reckon the diseases of cattle； and of all the ills that witches are believed to work there is probably none which is so constantly insisted on as the harm they do to the herds； particularly by stealing the milk from the cows。 Now it is significant that the need…fire； which may perhaps be regarded as the parent of the periodic fire…festivals； is kindled above all as a remedy for a murrain or other disease of cattle； and the circumstance suggests； what on general grounds seems probable； that the custom of kindling the need…fire goes back to a time when the ancestors of the European peoples subsisted chiefly on the products of their herds； and when agriculture as yet played a subordinate part in their lives。 Witches and wolves are the two great foes still dreaded by the herdsman in many parts of Europe； and we need not wonder that he should resort to fire as a powerful means of banning them both。 Among Slavonic peoples it appears that the foes whom the need…fire is designed to combat are not so much living witches as vampyres and other evil spirits； and the ceremony aims rather at repelling these baleful beings than at actually consuming them in the flames。 But for our present purpose these distinctions are immaterial。 The important thing to observe is that among the Slavs the need…fire； which is probably the original of all the ceremonial fires now under consideration； is not a sun…charm； but clearly and unmistakably nothing but a means of protecting man and beast against the attacks of maleficent creatures； whom the peasant thinks to burn or scare by the heat of the fire； just as he might burn or scare wild animals。
Again； the bonfires are often supposed to protect the fields against hail and the homestead against thunder and lightning。 But both hail and thunderstorms are frequently thought to be caused by witches； hence the fire which bans the witches necessarily serves at the same time as a talisman against hail； thunder； and lightning。 Further； brands taken from the bonfires are commonly kept in the houses to guard them against conflagration； and though this may perhaps be done on the principle of homoeopathic magic； one fire being thought to act as a preventive of another； it is also possible that the intention may be to keep witch…incendiaries at bay。 Again； people leap over the bonfires as a preventive of colic； and look at the flames steadily in order to preserve their eyes in good health； and both colic and sore eyes are in Germany； and probably elsewhere； set down to the machinations of witches。 Once more； to leap over the midsummer fires or to circumambulate them is thought to prevent a person from feeling pains in his back at reaping； and in Germany such pains are called witch…shots and ascribed to witchcraft。
But if the bonfires and torches of the fire…festivals are to be regarded primarily as weapons directed against witches and wizards； it becomes probable that the same explanation applies not only to the flaming discs which are hurled into the air； but also to the burning wheels which are rolled down hill on these occasions； discs and wheels； we may suppose； are alike intended to burn the witches who hover invisible in the air or haunt unseen the fields； the orchards； and the vineyards on the hillside。 Certainly witches are constantly thought to ride through the air on broomsticks or other equally convenient vehicles； and if they do so； how can you get at them so effectually as by hurling lighted missiles； whether discs； torches； or besoms； after them as they flit past overhead in the gloom？ The South Slavonian peasant believes that witches ride in the dark hail…clouds； so he shoots at the clouds to bring down the hags； while he curses them； saying； Curse； curse Herodias； thy mother is a heathen； damned of God and fettered through the Redeemer's blood。 Also he brings out a pot of glowing charcoal on which he has thrown holy oil； laurel leaves； and wormwood to make a smoke。 The fumes are supposed to ascend to the clouds and stupefy the witches； so that they tumble down to earth。 And in order that they may not fall soft； but may hurt themselves very much； the yokel hastily brings out a chair and tilts it bottom up so that the witch in falling may break her legs on the legs of the chair。 Worse than that； he cruelly lays scythes； bill…hooks； and other formidable weapons edge upwards so as to cut and mangle the poor wretches when they drop plump upon them from the clouds。
On this view the fertility supposed to follow the application of fire in the form of bonfires； torches； discs； rolling wheels； and so forth； is not conceived as resulting directly from an increase of solar heat which the fire has magically generated； it is merely an indirect result obtained by freeing the reproductive powers of plants and animals from the fatal obstruction of witchcraft。 And what is true of the reproduction of plants and animals may hold good also of the fertility of the human sexes。 The bonfires are supposed to promote marriage and to procure offspring for childless couples。 This happy effect need not flow directly from any quickening or fertilising energy in the fire； it may follow indirectly from the power of the fire to remove those obstacles which the spells of witches and wizards notoriously present to the union of man and wife。
On the whole； then； the theory of the purificatory virtue of the ceremonial fires appears more probable and more in accordance with the evidence than the opposing theory of their connexion with the sun。
Chapter 64。 The Burning of Human Beings in the Fires。
1。 The Burning ofEffigies in the Fires
WE have still to ask； What is the meaning of burning effigies in the fire at these festivals？ After the preceding investigation the answer to the question seems obvious。 As the fires are often alleged to be kindled for the purpose of burning the witches； and as the effigy burnt in them is sometimes called the Witch； we might naturally be disposed to conclude that all the effigies consumed in the flames on these occasions represent witches or warlocks； and that the custom of burning them is merely a substitute for burning the wicked men and women themselves； since on the principle of homoeopathic or imitativ