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for burning the wicked men and women themselves； since on the principle of homoeopathic or imitative magic you practically destroy the witch herself in destroying her effigy。 On the whole this explanation of the burning of straw figures in human shape at the festivals is perhaps the most probable。
Yet it may be that this explanation does not apply to all the cases； and that certain of them may admit and even require another interpretation。 For the effigies so burned； as I have already remarked； can hardly be separated from the effigies of Death which are burned or otherwise destroyed in spring； and grounds have been already given for regarding the so…called effigies of Death as really representatives of the tree…spirit or spirit of vegetation。 Are the other effigies； which are burned in the spring and midsummer bonfires； susceptible of the same explanation？ It would seem so。 For just as the fragments of the so…called Death are stuck in the fields to make the crops grow； so the charred embers of the figure burned in the spring bonfires are sometimes laid on the fields in the belief that they will keep vermin from the crop。 Again； the rule that the last married bride must leap over the fire in which the straw…man is burned on Shrove Tuesday； is probably intended to make her fruitful。 But； as we have seen； the power of blessing women with offspring is a special attribute of tree…spirits； it is therefore a fair presumption that the burning effigy over which the bride must leap is a representative of the fertilising tree…spirit or spirit of vegetation。 This character of the effigy； as representative of the spirit of vegetation； is almost unmistakable when the figure is composed of an unthreshed sheaf of corn or is covered from head to foot with flowers。 Again； it is to be noted that； instead of a puppet； trees； either living or felled； are sometimes burned both in the spring and midsummer bonfires。 Now； considering the frequency with which the tree…spirit is represented in human shape； it is hardly rash to suppose that when sometimes a tree and sometimes an effigy is burned in these fires； the effigy and the tree are regarded as equivalent to each other； each being a representative of the tree…spirit。 This； again； is confirmed by observing； first； that sometimes the effigy which is to be burned is carried about simultaneously with a May…tree； the former being carried by the boys； the latter by the girls； and； second； that the effigy is sometimes tied to a living tree and burned with it。 In these cases； we can scarcely doubt； the tree…spirit is represented； as we have found it represented before； in duplicate； both by the tree and by the effigy。 That the true character of the effigy as a representative of the beneficent spirit of vegetation should sometimes be forgotten； is natural。 The custom of burning a beneficent god is too foreign to later modes of thought to escape misinterpretation。 Naturally enough the people who continued to burn his image came in time to identify it as the effigy of persons； whom； on various grounds； they regarded with aversion； such as Judas Iscariot； Luther； and a witch。
The general reasons for killing a god or his representative have been examined in a preceding chapter。 But when the god happens to be a deity of vegetation； there are special reasons why he should die by fire。 For light and heat are necessary to vegetable growth； and； on the principle of sympathetic magic； by subjecting the personal representative of vegetation to their influence； you secure a supply of these necessaries for trees and crops。 In other words； by burning the spirit of vegetation in a fire which represents the sun； you make sure that； for a time at least； vegetation shall have plenty of sun。 It may be objected that； if the intention is simply to secure enough sunshine for vegetation； this end would be better attained； on the principles of sympathetic magic； by merely passing the representative of vegetation through the fire instead of burning him。 In point of fact this is sometimes done。 In Russia； as we have seen； the straw figure of Kupalo is not burned in the midsummer fire； but merely carried backwards and forwards across it。 But； for the reasons already given； it is necessary that the god should die； so next day Kupalo is stripped of her ornaments and thrown into a stream。 In this Russian custom the passage of the image through the fire； if it is not simply a purification； may possibly be a sun…charm； the killing of the god is a separate act； and the mode of killing himby drowningis probably a rain…charm。 But usually people have not thought it necessary to draw this fine distinction； for the various reasons already assigned； it is advantageous； they think； to expose the god of vegetation to a considerable degree of heat； and it is also advantageous to kill him； and they combine these advantages in a rough…and…ready way by burning him。
2。 The Burning of Men and Animals in the Fires
IN THE POPULAR customs connected with the fire…festivals of Europe there are certain features which appear to point to a former practice of human sacrifice。 We have seen reasons for believing that in Europe living persons have often acted as representatives of the tree…spirit and corn…spirit and have suffered death as such。 There is no reason； therefore； why they should not have been burned； if any special advantages were likely to be attained by putting them to death in that way。 The consideration of human suffering is not one which enters into the calculations of primitive man。 Now； in the fire…festivals which we are discussing； the pretence of burning people is sometimes carried so far that it seems reasonable to regard it as a mitigated survival of an older custom of actually burning them。 Thus in Aachen； as we saw； the man clad in peas…straw acts so cleverly that the children really believe he is being burned。 At Jumièges in Normandy the man clad all in green； who bore the title of the Green Wolf； was pursued by his comrades； and when they caught him they feigned to fling him upon the midsummer bonfire。 Similarly at the Beltane fires in Scotland the pretended victim was seized； and a show made of throwing him into the flames； and for some time afterwards people affected to speak of him as dead。 Again； in the Hallowe'en bonfires of Northeastern Scotland we may perhaps detect a similar pretence in the custom observed by a lad of lying down as close to the fire as possible and allowing the other lads to leap over him。 The titular king at Aix； who reigned for a year and danced the first dance round the midsummer bonfire； may perhaps in days of old have discharged the less agreeable duty of serving as fuel for that fire which in later times he only kindled。 In the following customs Mannhardt is probably right in recognising traces of an old custom of burning a leaf…clad representative of the spirit of vegetation。 At Wolfeck； in Austria； on Midsummer Day； a boy completely clad in green fir branches goes from house to house； accompanied by a noisy crew； collecting wood for the bonfire。 As he gets the wood he sings：
Forest trees I want； No sour milk for me； But beer and wine； So can the wood…man be jolly and gay。
In some parts of Bavaria； also； the boys who go from house to house collecting fuel for the midsummer bonfire envelop one of their number from head to foot in green branches of firs； and lead him by a rope through the whole village。 At Moosheim； in Wurtemberg； the festival of St。 John's Fire usually lasted for fourteen days； ending on the second Sunday after Midsummer Day。 On this last day the bonfire was left in charge of the children； while the older people retired to a wood。 Here they encased a young fellow in leaves and twigs； who； thus disguised； went to the fire； scattered it； and trod it out。 All the people present fled at the sight of him。
But it seems possible to go farther than this。 Of human sacrifices offered on these occasions the most unequivocal traces； as we have seen； are those which； about a hundred years ago； still lingered at the Beltane fires in the Highlands of Scotland； that is； among a Celtic people who； situated in a remote corner of Europe and almost completely isolated from foreign influence； had till then conserved their old heathenism better perhaps than any other people in the West of Europe。 It is significant； therefore； that human sacrifices by fire are known； on unquestionable evidence； to have been systematically practised by the Celts。 The earliest description of these sacrifices has been bequeathed to us by Julius Caesar。 As conqueror of the hitherto independent Celts of Gaul； Caesar had ample opportunity of observing the national Celtic religion and manners； while these were still fresh and crisp from the native mint and had not yet been fused in the melting…pot of Roman civilisation。 With his own notes Caesar appears to have incorporated the observations of a Greek explorer； by name Posidonius； who travelled in Gaul about fifty years before Caesar carried the Roman arms to the English Channel。 The Greek geographer Strabo and the historian Diodorus seem also to have derived their descriptions of the Celtic sacrifices from the work of Posidonius； but independently of each other； and of Caesa