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Now； considering the primitive character and remarkable similarity of the fire…festivals observed by all the branches of the Aryan race in Europe； we may infer that these festivals form part of the common stock of religious observances which the various peoples carried with them in their wanderings from their old home。 But； if I am right； an essential feature of those primitive fire…festivals was the burning of a man who represented the tree…spirit。 In view； then； of the place occupied by the oak in the religion of the Aryans； the presumption is that the tree so represented at the fire…festivals must originally have been the oak。 So far as the Celts and Lithuanians are concerned； this conclusion will perhaps hardly be contested。 But both for them and for the Germans it is confirmed by a remarkable piece of religious conservatism。 The most primitive method known to man of producing fire is by rubbing two pieces of wood against each other till they ignite； and we have seen that this method is still used in Europe for kindling sacred fires such as the need…fire； and that most probably it was formerly resorted to at all the fire…festivals under discussion。 Now it is sometimes required that the need…fire； or other sacred fire； should be made by the friction of a particular kind of wood； and when the kind of wood is prescribed； whether among Celts； Germans； or Slavs； that wood appears to be generally the oak。 But if the sacred fire was regularly kindled by the friction of oak…wood； we may infer that originally the fire was also fed with the same material。 In point of fact； it appears that the perpetual fire of Vesta at Rome was fed with oak…wood； and that oak…wood was the fuel consumed in the perpetual fire which burned under the sacred oak at the great Lithuanian sanctuary of Romove。 Further； that oak…wood was formerly the fuel burned in the midsummer fires may perhaps be inferred from the custom； said to be still observed by peasants in many mountain districts of Germany； of making up the cottage fire on Midsummer Day with a heavy block of oak…wood。 The block is so arranged that it smoulders slowly and is not finally reduced to charcoal till the expiry of a year。 Then upon next Midsummer Day the charred embers of the old log are removed to make room for the new one； and are mixed with the seed…corn or scattered about the garden。 This is believed to guard the food cooked on the hearth from witchcraft； to preserve the luck of the house； to promote the growth of the crops； and to keep them from blight and vermin。 Thus the custom is almost exactly parallel to that of the Yule…log； which in parts of Germany； France； England； Serbia； and other Slavonic lands was commonly of oak…wood。 The general conclusion is； that at those periodic or occasional ceremonies the ancient Aryans both kindled and fed the fire with the sacred oak…wood。
But if at these solemn rites the fire was regularly made of oakwood； it follows that any man who was burned in it as a personification of the tree…spirit could have represented no tree but the oak。 The sacred oak was thus burned in duplicate； the wood of the tree was consumed in the fire； and along with it was consumed a living man as a personification of the oak…spirit。 The conclusion thus drawn for the European Aryans in general is confirmed in its special application to the Scandinavians by the relation in which amongst them the mistletoe appears to have stood to the burning of the victim in the midsummer fire。 We have seen that among Scandinavians it has been customary to gather the mistletoe at midsummer。 But so far as appears on the face of this custom； there is nothing to connect it with the midsummer fires in which human victims or effigies of them were burned。 Even if the fire； as seems probable； was originally always made with oak…wood； why should it have been necessary to pull the mistletoe？ The last link between the midsummer customs of gathering the mistletoe and lighting the bonfires is supplied by Balder's myth； which can hardly be disjoined from the customs in question。 The myth suggests that a vital connexion may once have been believed to subsist between the mistletoe and the human representative of the oak who was burned in the fire。 According to the myth； Balder could be killed by nothing in heaven or earth except the mistletoe； and so long as the mistletoe remained on the oak； he was not only immortal but invulnerable。 Now； if we suppose that Balder was the oak； the origin of the myth becomes intelligible。 The mistletoe was viewed as the seat of life of the oak； and so long as it was uninjured nothing could kill or even wound the oak。 The conception of the mistletoe as the seat of life of the oak would naturally be suggested to primitive people by the observation that while the oak is deciduous； the mistletoe which grows on it is evergreen。 In winter the sight of its fresh foliage among the bare branches must have been hailed by the worshippers of the tree as a sign that the divine life which had ceased to animate the branches yet survived in the mistletoe； as the heart of a sleeper still beats when his body is motionless。 Hence when the god had to be killedwhen the sacred tree had to be burntit was necessary to begin by breaking off the mistletoe。 For so long as the mistletoe remained intact； the oak （so people might think） was invulnerable； all the blows of their knives and axes would glance harmless from its surface。 But once tear from the oak its sacred heartthe mistletoeand the tree nodded to its fall。 And when in later times the spirit of the oak came to be represented by a living man； it was logically necessary to suppose that； like the tree he personated； he could neither be killed nor wounded so long as the mistletoe remained uninjured。 The pulling of the mistletoe was thus at once the signal and the cause of his death。
On this view the invulnerable Balder is neither more nor less than a personification of a mistletoe…bearing oak。 The interpretation is confirmed by what seems to have been an ancient Italian belief； that the mistletoe can be destroyed neither by fire nor water； for if the parasite is thus deemed indestructible； it might easily be supposed to communicate its own indestructibility to the tree on which it grows； so long as the two remain in conjunction。 Or； to put the same idea in mythical form； we might tell how the kindly god of the oak had his life securely deposited in the imperishable mistletoe which grew among the branches； how accordingly so long as the mistletoe kept its place there； the deity himself remained invulnerable； and how at last a cunning foe； let into the secret of the god's invulnerability； tore the mistletoe from the oak； thereby killing the oak…god and afterwards burning his body in a fire which could have made no impression on him so long as the incombustible parasite retained its seat among the boughs。 19
But since the idea of a being whose life is thus； in a sense； outside himself； must be strange to many readers； and has； indeed； not yet been recognised in its full bearing on primitive superstition； it will be worth while to illustrate it by examples drawn both from story and custom。 The result will be to show that； in assuming this idea as the explanation of Balder's relation to the mistletoe； I assume a principle which is deeply engraved on the mind of primitive man。
Chapter 66。 The External Soul in Folk…Tales
IN A FORMER part of this work we saw that； in the opinion of primitive people； the soul may temporarily absent itself from the body without causing death。 Such temporary absences of the soul are often believed to involve considerable risk； since the wandering soul is liable to a variety of mishaps at the hands of enemies； and so forth。 But there is another aspect to this power of disengaging the soul from the body。 If only the safety of the soul can be ensured during its absence； there is no reason why the soul should not continue absent for an indefinite time； indeed a man may； on a pure calculation of personal safety； desire that his soul should never return to his body。 Unable to conceive of life abstractly as a permanent possibility of sensation or a continuous adjustment of internal arrangements to external relations； the savage thinks of it as a concrete material thing of a definite bulk； capable of being seen and handled； kept in a box or jar； and liable to be bruised； fractured； or smashed in pieces。 It is not needful that the life； so conceived； should be in the man； it may be absent from his body and still continue to animate him by virtue of a sort of sympathy or action at a distance。 So long as this object which he calls his life or soul remains unharmed； the man is well； if it is injured； he suffers； if it is destroyed； he dies。 Or； to put it otherwise； when a man is ill or dies； the fact is explained by saying that the material object called his life or soul； whether it be in his body or out of it； has either sustained injury or been destroyed。 But there may be circumstances in which； if the life or soul remains in the man； it stands a greater chance of sustaining injury than if it were stowed away in some safe and secret place。 Accordingly； in such circumstances； primitive man takes his soul out of his body and d