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learings must have appeared like islets in an ocean of green。 Down to the first century before our era the Hercynian forest stretched eastward from the Rhine for a distance at once vast and unknown； Germans whom Caesar questioned had travelled for two months through it without reaching the end。 Four centuries later it was visited by the Emperor Julian； and the solitude； the gloom； the silence of the forest appear to have made a deep impression on his sensitive nature。 He declared that he knew nothing like it in the Roman empire。 In our own country the wealds of Kent； Surrey； and Sussex are remnants of the great forest of Anderida； which once clothed the whole of the south…eastern portion of the island。 Westward it seems to have stretched till it joined another forest that extended from Hampshire to Devon。 In the reign of Henry II。 the citizens of London still hunted the wild bull and the boar in the woods of Hampstead。 Even under the later Plantagenets the royal forests were sixty…eight in number。 In the forest of Arden it was said that down to modern times a squirrel might leap from tree to tree for nearly the whole length of Warwickshire。 The excavation of ancient pile…villages in the valley of the Po has shown that long before the rise and probably the foundation of Rome the north of Italy was covered with dense woods of elms； chestnuts； and especially of oaks。 Archaeology is here confirmed by history； for classical writers contain many references to Italian forests which have now disappeared。 As late as the fourth century before our era Rome was divided from central Etruria by the dreaded Ciminian forest； which Livy compares to the woods of Germany。 No merchant； if we may trust the Roman historian； had ever penetrated its pathless solitudes； and it was deemed a most daring feat when a Roman general； after sending two scouts to explore its intricacies； led his army into the forest and； making his way to a ridge of the wooded mountains； looked down on the rich Etrurian fields spread out below。 In Greece beautiful woods of pine； oak； and other trees still linger on the slopes of the high Arcadian mountains； still adorn with their verdure the deep gorge through which the Ladon hurries to join the sacred Alpheus； and were still； down to a few years ago； mirrored in the dark blue waters of the lonely lake of Pheneus； but they are mere fragments of the forests which clothed great tracts in antiquity； and which at a more remote epoch may have spanned the Greek peninsula from sea to sea。
From an examination of the Teutonic words for temple Grimm has made it probable that amongst the Germans the oldest sanctuaries were natural woods。 However that may be； tree…worship is well attested for all the great European families of the Aryan stock。 Amongst the Celts the oak…worship of the Druids is familiar to every one； and their old word for sanctuary seems to be identical in origin and meaning with the Latin nemus； a grove or woodland glade； which still survives in the name of Nemi。 Sacred groves were common among the ancient Germans； and tree…worship is hardly extinct amongst their descendants at the present day。 How serious that worship was in former times may be gathered from the ferocious penalty appointed by the old German laws for such as dared to peel the bark of a standing tree。 The culprit's navel was to be cut out and nailed to the part of the tree which he had peeled； and he was to be driven round and round the tree till all his guts were wound about its trunk。 The intention of the punishment clearly was to replace the dead bark by a living substitute taken from the culprit； it was a life for a life； the life of a man for the life of a tree。 At Upsala； the old religious capital of Sweden； there was a sacred grove in which every tree was regarded as divine。 The heathen Slavs worshipped trees and groves。 The Lithuanians were not converted to Christianity till towards the close of the fourteenth century； and amongst them at the date of their conversion the worship of trees was prominent。 Some of them revered remarkable oaks and other great shady trees； from which they received oracular responses。 Some maintained holy groves about their villages or houses； where even to break a twig would have been a sin。 They thought that he who cut a bough in such a grove either died suddenly or was crippled in one of his limbs。 Proofs of the prevalence of tree…worship in ancient Greece and Italy are abundant。 In the sanctuary of Aesculapius at Cos； for example； it was forbidden to cut down the cypress…trees under a penalty of a thousand drachms。 But nowhere； perhaps； in the ancient world was this antique form of religion better preserved than in the heart of the great metropolis itself。 In the Forum； the busy centre of Roman life； the sacred fig…tree of Romulus was worshipped down to the days of the empire； and the withering of its trunk was enough to spread consternation through the city。 Again； on the slope of the Palatine Hill grew a cornel…tree which was esteemed one of the most sacred objects in Rome。 Whenever the tree appeared to a passer…by to be drooping； he set up a hue and cry which was echoed by the people in the street； and soon a crowd might be seen running helter…skelter from all sides with buckets of water； as if （says Plutarch） they were hastening to put out a fire。
Among the tribes of the Finnish…Ugrian stock in Europe the heathen worship was performed for the most part in sacred groves； which were always enclosed with a fence。 Such a grove often consisted merely of a glade or clearing with a few trees dotted about； upon which in former times the skins of the sacrificial victims were hung。 The central point of the grove； at least among the tribes of the Volga； was the sacred tree； beside which everything else sank into insignificance。 Before it the worshippers assembled and the priest offered his prayers； at its roots the victim was sacrificed； and its boughs sometimes served as a pulpit。 No wood might be hewn and no branch broken in the grove； and women were generally forbidden to enter it。
But it is necessary to examine in some detail the notions on which the worship of trees and plants is based。 To the savage the world in general is animate； and trees and plants are no exception to the rule。 He thinks that they have souls like his own； and he treats them accordingly。 They say； writes the ancient vegetarian Porphyry； that primitive men led an unhappy life； for their superstition did not stop at animals but extended even to plants。 For why should the slaughter of an ox or a sheep be a greater wrong than the felling of a fir or an oak； seeing that a soul is implanted in these trees also？ Similarly； the Hidatsa Indians of North America believe that every natural object has its spirit； or to speak more properly； its shade。 To these shades some consideration or respect is due； but not equally to all。 For example； the shade of the cottonwood； the greatest tree in the valley of the Upper Missouri； is supposed to possess an intelligence which； if properly approached； may help the Indians in certain undertakings； but the shades of shrubs and grasses are of little account。 When the Missouri； swollen by a freshet in spring； carries away part of its banks and sweeps some tall tree into its current； it is said that the spirit of the tree cries； while the roots still cling to the land and until the trunk falls with a splash into the stream。 Formerly the Indians considered it wrong to fell one of these giants； and when large logs were needed they made use only of trees which had fallen of themselves。 Till lately some of the more credulous old men declared that many of the misfortunes of their people were caused by this modern disregard for the rights of the living cottonwood。 The Iroquois believed that each species of tree； shrub； plant； and herb had its own spirit； and to these spirits it was their custom to return thanks。 The Wanika of Eastern Africa fancy that every tree； and especially every coco…nut tree； has its spirit； the destruction of a cocoa…nut tree is regarded as equivalent to matricide； because that tree gives them life and nourishment； as a mother does her child。 Siamese monks； believing that there are souls everywhere； and that to destroy anything whatever is forcibly to dispossess a soul； will not break a branch of a tree； as they will not break the arm of an innocent person。 These monks； of course； are Buddhists。 But Buddhist animism is not a philosophical theory。 It is simply a common savage dogma incorporated in the system of an historical religion。 To suppose； with Benfey and others； that the theories of animism and transmigration current among rude peoples of Asia are derived from Buddhism； is to reverse the facts。
Sometimes it is only particular sorts of trees that are supposed to be tenanted by spirits。 At Grbalj in Dalmatia it is said that among great beeches； oaks； and other trees there are some that are endowed with shades or souls； and whoever fells one of them must die on the spot； or at least live an invalid for the rest of his days。 If a woodman fears that a tree which he has felled is one of this sort； he must cut off the head of a live hen on the stump of the tree with the very same axe with which he cut down