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r direction。 It was a ground of divorce if his shadow happened to fall on his mother…in…law： in that case he had to leave his wife； and she returned to her parents。 In New Britain the native imagination fails to conceive the extent and nature of the calamities which would result from a man's accidentally speaking to his wife's mother； suicide of one or both would probably be the only course open to them。 The most solemn form of oath a New Briton can take is； Sir； if I am not telling the truth； I hope I may shake hands with my mother…in…law。
Where the shadow is regarded as so intimately bound up with the life of the man that its loss entails debility or death； it is natural to expect that its diminution should be regarded with solicitude and apprehension； as betokening a corresponding decrease in the vital energy of its owner。 In Amboyna and Uliase； two islands near the equator； where necessarily there is little or no shadow cast at noon； the people make it a rule not to go out of the house at mid…day； because they fancy that by doing so a man may lose the shadow of his soul。 The Mangaians tell of a mighty warrior； Tukaitawa； whose strength waxed and waned with the length of his shadow。 In the morning； when his shadow fell longest； his strength was greatest； but as the shadow shortened towards noon his strength ebbed with it； till exactly at noon it reached its lowest point； then； as the shadow stretched out in the afternoon； his strength returned。 A certain hero discovered the secret of Tukaitawa's strength and slew him at noon。 The savage Besisis of the Malay Peninsula fear to bury their dead at noon； because they fancy that the shortness of their shadows at that hour would sympathetically shorten their own lives。
Nowhere； perhaps； does the equivalence of the shadow to the life or soul come out more clearly than in some customs practised to this day in South…eastern Europe。 In modern Greece； when the foundation of a new building is being laid； it is the custom to kill a cock； a ram； or a lamb； and to let its blood flow on the foundation…stone； under which the animal is afterwards buried。 The object of the sacrifice is to give strength and stability to the building。 But sometimes； instead of killing an animal； the builder entices a man to the foundation…stone； secretly measures his body； or a part of it； or his shadow； and buries the measure under the foundation…stone； or he lays the foundation…stone upon the man's shadow。 It is believed that the man will die within the year。 The Roumanians of Transylvania think that he whose shadow is thus immured will die within forty days； so persons passing by a building which is in course of erection may hear a warning cry； Beware lest they take thy shadow！ Not long ago there were still shadow…traders whose business it was to provide architects with the shadows necessary for securing their walls。 In these cases the measure of the shadow is looked on as equivalent to the shadow itself； and to bury it is to bury the life or soul of the man； who； deprived of it； must die。 Thus the custom is a substitute for the old practice of immuring a living person in the walls； or crushing him under the foundation…stone of a new building； in order to give strength and durability to the structure； or more definitely in order that the angry ghost may haunt the place and guard it against the intrusion of enemies。
As some peoples believe a man's soul to be in his shadow； so other （or the same） peoples believe it to be in his reflection in water or a mirror。 Thus the Andamanese do not regard their shadows but their reflections （in any mirror） as their souls。 When the Motumotu of New Guinea first saw their likenesses in a looking…glass； they thought that their reflections were their souls。 In New Caledonia the old men are of opinion that a person's reflection in water or a mirror is his soul； but the younger men； taught by the Catholic priests； maintain that it is a reflection and nothing more； just like the reflection of palm…trees in the water。 The reflection…soul； being external to the man； is exposed to much the same dangers as the shadow…soul。 The Zulus will not look into a dark pool because they think there is a beast in it which will take away their reflections； so that they die。 The Basutos say that crocodiles have the power of thus killing a man by dragging his reflection under water。 When one of them dies suddenly and from no apparent cause； his relatives will allege that a crocodile must have taken his shadow some time when he crossed a stream。 In Saddle Island； Melanesia； there is a pool into which if any one looks he dies； the malignant spirit takes hold upon his life by means of his reflection on the water。
We can now understand why it was a maxim both in ancient India and ancient Greece not to look at one's reflection in water； and why the Greeks regarded it as an omen of death if a man dreamed of seeing himself so reflected。 They feared that the water…spirits would drag the person's reflection or soul under water； leaving him soulless to perish。 This was probably the origin of the classical story of the beautiful Narcissus； who languished and died through seeing his reflection in the water。
Further； we can now explain the widespread custom of covering up mirrors or turning them to the wall after a death has taken place in the house。 It is feared that the soul； projected out of the person in the shape of his reflection in the mirror； may be carried off by the ghost of the departed； which is commonly supposed to linger about the house till the burial。 The custom is thus exactly parallel to the Aru custom of not sleeping in a house after a death for fear that the soul； projected out of the body in a dream； may meet the ghost and be carried off by it。 The reason why sick people should not see themselves in a mirror； and why the mirror in a sick…room is therefore covered up； is also plain； in time of sickness； when the soul might take flight so easily； it is particularly dangerous to project it out of the body by means of the reflection in a mirror。 The rule is therefore precisely parallel to the rule observed by some peoples of not allowing sick people to sleep； for in sleep the soul is projected out of the body； and there is always a risk that it may not return。
As with shadows and reflections； so with portraits； they are often believed to contain the soul of the person portrayed。 People who hold this belief are naturally loth to have their likenesses taken； for if the portrait is the soul； or at least a vital part of the person portrayed； whoever possesses the portrait will be able to exercise a fatal influence over the original of it。 Thus the Esquimaux of Bering Strait believe that persons dealing in witchcraft have the power of stealing a person's shade； so that without it he will pine away and die。 Once at a village on the lower Yukon River an explorer had set up his camera to get a picture of the people as they were moving about among their houses。 While he was focusing the instrument； the headman of the village came up and insisted on peeping under the cloth。 Being allowed to do so； he gazed intently for a minute at the moving figures on the ground glass； then suddenly withdrew his head and bawled at the top of his voice to the people； He has all of your shades in this box。 A panic ensued among the group； and in an instant they disappeared helterskelter into their houses。 The Tepehuanes of Mexico stood in mortal terror of the camera； and five days' persuasion was necessary to induce them to pose for it。 When at last they consented； they looked like criminals about to be executed。 They believed that by photographing people the artist could carry off their souls and devour them at his leisure moments。 They said that； when the pictures reached his country； they would die or some other evil would befall them。 When Dr。 Catat and some companions were exploring the Bara country on the west coast of Madagascar； the people suddenly became hostile。 The day before the travellers； not without difficulty； had photographed the royal family； and now found themselves accused of taking the souls of the natives for the purpose of selling them when they returned to France。 Denial was vain； in compliance with the custom of the country they were obliged to catch the souls； which were then put into a basket and ordered by Dr。 Catat to return to their respective owners。
Some villagers in Sikhim betrayed a lively horror and hid away whenever the lens of a camera； or the evil eye of the box as they called it； was turned on them。 They thought it took away their souls with their pictures； and so put it in the power of the owner of the pictures to cast spells on them； and they alleged that a photograph of the scenery blighted the landscape。 Until the reign of the late King of Siam no Siamese coins were ever stamped with the image of the king； for at that time there was a strong prejudice against the making of portraits in any medium。 Europeans who travel into the jungle have； even at the present time； only to point a camera at a crowd to procure its instant dispersion。 When a copy of the face of a person is made and taken away from him； a portion of his life goes with the picture。 Unless the sovereign had bee