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d．After
thorough experimentation，the researcher validates，modifies，or rejects his original hypothesis．
e．Originating
from the branch of philosophy called epistemology，what we now know as the scientific method provides guidelinesf of
the systematic acquisition of knowledge．
f．On the basis
of these data，a hypothesis
is proposed to explain them．
The right order：______________________________
Exercise 11…3
Directions：Write a paragraph about how to prepare a barbecue picnic in the park．
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第十二单元 组织段落方法——时间顺序法和空间顺序法
组织段落的常见方法有：1）时间顺序；2）空间顺序；3）重要性顺序和；4）熟悉度顺序。在前几单元，我们曾提到写叙述段落和过程分析时用时间顺序，写描述段落时用空间顺序。在这一单元里，我们将着重讨论这两种组织方法。另两种方法——重要性和熟悉度顺序——将在第19单元讨论。
12．1时间顺序法
段落内组织细节的最简单最常见的方法是时间顺序法（time order
organization）。时间顺序通常用于叙述和过程分析——先发生什么，然后怎样，再然后怎样，等等。正如我们在示范段落9－1和示范段落11－1所看到的一样。其实在你的生活中你经常运用这种方法。你也许曾经告诉你父母在学校里发生的事情。你也许向老师或同学叙述过你是怎样做一个实验的。这些用的都是时间顺序。
12．2关于如何写时间顺序段落的建议
1）写下你要记录的事件或步骤，然后按照时间顺序排列
2）确定你的写作目的，然后写出带有中心思想的主题句
3）从你列举的事件或步骤中删除与中心思想无关的细节
4）使用“first，then，the next step”等等列举符号把细节连接起来
12．3空间顺序法
段落组织的另一方法是空间顺序法（space order
organization）。空间顺序主要用于描述，正如我们在示范段落10－1和示范段落10－2所看到的。空间顺序和时间顺序一样，是生活中经常使用的方法。你也许曾在信中向你父母描述你的学院，或向你的同学描述一个风景区。
12．4关于如何写空间顺序段落的建议
按照你想让你的读者了解你要描绘的场面的方式移动——例如，从左到右，或从背景到前景，或按顺时针方向，等等。
12．5综合运用空间顺序和时间顺序
有时候，尤其在描写参观时，有必要同时运用空间顺序和时间顺序，以增强段落的统一性。
示范段落12…1
We enjoyed our visit to Dr Hassan's house，perched high up on a hill．Walking up the long driveway，we approached the huge bronze door．A butler was standing in the open
doorway，ushering
guests into the house．Going in，we passed the oak－pannelled library and the formal dining room before we arrived at
the ballroom，where the
reception was being held．Under three sparkling chandeliers，more than a hundred people were enjoying champagne，hors d'oeuvres and good
conversation．
12．6示范段落分析
主题句：We enjoyed our visit to Dr
Hassan's house．
时间空间顺序：driveway→door→house→library→diningroom→ballroom
Exercise 12－1
Directions：Arrange the sentences into a paragraph，using the time order and adding the necessary listing signals．
—She never had a birthday party and
she was twenty－one year sold．
—The party was really a successful
one．
—We planned to serve fruit punch and
coffee．
—We planned entertainment．
—We carefully made a guest list．
—We planned a surprise party for
Mary recently．
—We included many of her friends
from school，a few of her
friends from her neighbourhood，and all of her brothers and sisters．
—A boy did mayic tricks skillfully；another boy played the guitar well．
—We also wanted chicken sandwiches，a birthday cake with twenty－one candles，and ice cream．
—We especially enjoyed the group
singing．
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Exercise 12…2
Directions：Narrate an incident from your own childhood in which you behave in a
way you later regretted，using time order．
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Exercise 12－3
Directions：Narrate one of your trip，either by bike，by bus or bytrain，bining time order and space order．
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第十三单元 推展段落方法之五——举例法
13．1举例法
举例法（examples）也是推展主题的主要方法。举例法有两种形式，一种是首先陈述自己的观点，然后举出一个或多个例子阐明观点；另一种是先举一个很长的例子，然后转入例子所要阐明的观点。
读下面段落：
Courage is the willingness to take a risk when the oute is
uncertain，and when the
risk taken may involve harm，loss，or danger to
the one taking it．The
courageous person fears no one and nothing．He or she is undaunted by danger or peril．He or she will venture boldly into
an uncertain situation，hardly giving a thought to the harm or consequences which may result
to his or her person．
以上段落的缺点是乏味、含糊，不能向读者表达作者关于“courage”的看法。请看下面重写后的段落。
示范段落13…1
Courage is the willingness to take a risk when the oute is
uncertain，and when the
risk taken may involve harm，loss，or danger to
the one taking it．For example，in a Los Angeles suburb，a twelve－year－old girl ran into a burning house to rescue her baby brother，pulled him unconscious out of the
burning bedroom，and dragged
him down the stairs and outside to safety．This was arousing display of courage．The girl had been safe outside the flaming house when she remembered
her sleeping brother．Disregarding her personal safety，she plunged into the flaming house to save him．
13．2示范段落分析
较之上一段落，这个段落更能清晰地传达作者关于“courage”的观点。首先，作者概述什么是“courage”，然后举出一个女孩子从燃烧着的房子中把弟弟救出来的例子阐明这一观点。
13．2关于写举例法段落的建议
1）选择恰当的例子
所选的例子应该能够恰当地支持自己的观点。
2）要表明你的例子所要阐明的观点
大多数作者使用“for example”等短语引出例子。其它常用的短语有：“as an example”，“to illustrate”，“for instance”，“an illustration of it”，“a case in point”（见第34单元）。
3）不要滥用例子
Exercise 13…1
Directions：Read the following paragraph，point out the topic sentence，and find out what example the writer uses to illustrate his point．
Despite her wealth，Madame Rubinstein had a mania for saving money．French President Georges Pompidou
once rented a Paris apartment from her．She noticed that he left the building at exactlly8：50 every morning．Madame began ordering her daily
taxi for 8：45 so that
she could save on cab fare by following Pompidou's motorcycle escort through
the heavy Paris traffic．
Topic Sentence：____________________________________________
Example：__________________________________________________
Exercise 13…2
Directions：Choose one of the given topic sentences and use an example to
develop the point．
（1）
Doing part－time jobs helps increase our experience．
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
（2）
You may have heard the old saying，“Self…help is the best help．”The truth of it has been proved by the successful lives of many
great men and women．
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
第十四单元 推展段落方法之六
——比较与对比法
14．1比较与对比法
有时为了说明某一事物，需要与其他事物联系起来才能阐述清楚，这就是对比或比较（parison or contrast）。比较方法和对比方法基本一致，不同的是比较强调两事物如何相同，对比强调两事物如何不同。
示范段落14－1
Life in the city is quite different from life in the suburbs．People living in the city are
constantly exposed to the hustle and bustle of urban life．But life in the suburbs is
generally quiet and casual and generally more low－key than in the city．If city dwellers want to see trees and grass，they must go to one of the public
parks．On the other
hand，the streets
of many suburban munities are lined with trees and shrubs，and each house has its own grassy
yard．A person
living in the city is close to many sources of entertainment，but people living in suburan areas
must go into the city for entertainment．
示范段落14－2
The llama is a member of the camel family．Like the camel，the llama ca