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示范段落14－2
The llama is a member of the camel family．Like the camel，the llama can live for weeks
without a drink of water．Both get enough moisture from the grass，shrubs，and other plants they eat．But unlike the camel，the llama has no hump on its back．
14．2示范段落分析
示范段落14－1所用的支配方法是对比。作者对比城市生活与城郊生活。而示范段落14－2同时运用了比较和对比方法，既描绘了无峰驼和骆驼的共同点，也描绘了不同点。
14．3关于如何写比较或对比段落的建议
1）弄清比较或对比的基点
在写比较或对比时，第一步是确定比较／对比的基点。在示范段落14－1中，作者把对比基于生活步调、视野和娱乐上。在示范段落14－2中，作者把比较和对比基于无峰驼和骆驼的特性和外表上。
2）用逐事比较或逐点比较的方法组织比较或对比段落一旦确定了比较／对比基点，作者就可以用以下两种方式之一推展段落：逐事比较（item－by－item）或逐点比较（point－by－point）。
逐事比较重点放在被比较和对比的特定事物上，先叙述A事物，再叙述B事物。逐点比较重点放在两事物中每个事物的各个特征上，先叙述每个事物某一特征，再叙述每个事物的另一特征。如下面比较“a motor－cycle”和“a car”的异同的大纲所示：
Item－by－Item
Ⅰ．Motorcycle A．Expense B．Upkeep C．Safety
Ⅱ．Automobile A．Expense B．Upkeep C．Safety
Point－by－Point
Ⅰ．Expense A．Motorcycle B．Autormobile
Ⅱ．Upkeep A．Motorcycle B．Autormobile
Ⅲ．Safety A．Motorcycle B．Autormobile
3）运用连接词语保持连贯（连接词语见第34单元）
Exercise 14…1
Directions：Write a paragraph using a point－by－point
parison/contrast about the advantages of bikes over cars or
buses．The outline
and the topic sentence are given．
Outline：Ⅰ．Expense A．Cars or buses B．Bikes
Ⅱ．Convenience A．Cars or buses B．Bikes
Ⅲ．Pollution A．Cars or buses B．Bikes
As pared with cars or buses，bicycles have unique advantages for Chinese people．
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Exercise 14…2
Directions：Write a paragraph of contrast，contrasting women today with women in the past（hints：social status，family status，etc．）．
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
第十五单元 推展段落方法之七——下定义法
15．1下定义法
下定义（definition）就是解释某事物是什么，不是什么。写下定义段落时，通常把概念或要下定义的事物置于一个大的类别中，然后解释该事物与同一类别的其它事物有何不同。下定义法多用作推展段落的辅助方法。
示范段落15－1
A pencil is an instrument for writing on paper．It is of cylindrical shape and can
be held between the first two fingers of the hand．It is about 6 inches long and 1／4 inch wide．At the end there is usually an eraser attached to the pencil by a
surrounding metal band．Lead is the material which is used in making the marks on the paper，and a sharpener is needed to keep
the pencil in good working order．Pencils are made of various kinds of wood．
15．2示范段落分析
主题句：A pencil is an instrument for
writing on paper．细节：shape，material
15．3关于如何写下定义段落
1）以正式的定义开始
一个正式的定义段落通常把要定义的术语置于一个概类中，然后指出该术语与其它同类别事物有什么不同。在示范段落15－1中，要定义的术语是“pencil”，属于概类“instrument”。
2）用描述、举例或比较对比方法扩充定义
在正式的定义之后，必须更详细地解释该术语的意思，在示范段落15－1中用的是描述法，在示范段落13－1中，扩充“courage”概念用的是举例法。比较对比法也可以用于扩充定义，对比法陈述该事物不是什么，比较法陈述该事物象什么。
Exercise 15…1
Directions：Read the following paragraph，point out the topic sentence and find out what method（s）are used to expand the defintion．
Chemistry is that branch of science which has the task of
investigating the materials out of which the universe is made．It is not concerned with the forms
into which they may be fashioned．Such objects as chairs，tables，vases，bottles，or wires are of no significance in
chemistry；but such
substances as glass，wool，iron，sulfur，and clay，as the materials out of which they
are made，are what it
studies．Chemistry is
concerned not only with the position of such substances，but also with their inner structure．
Topic Sentence：____________________________________________
Method（s） used：_______________________________________
Exercise 15－2
Directions：The definition of“an ice－box”can be，“An ice－box is an appliance for storing
food at low temperature．”Now use the method of description to expand the definition．
An ice－box is an
appliance for storing food at low temperature．
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Exercise 15…3
Directions：Give the defintion of friendship and then use an example to expand
your definition．
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
第十六单元 推展段落方法之八——分类法
16．1分类法
分类法（division and classification）是把一事物拆成几部分，表明这些部分与整体的关系。通常，作者以总类开头，然后把总类拆开，——列举部分或全部分类。
示范段落16－1
There are three basic kinds of materials that can be found in any
good library．First，there are books on all subjects，both in English and in many other
languages．These books
are organized according to subject，title，and author in
a central filing system called card catalog．Books can generally be checked out of the library and taken home for
a period of two to four weeks．Second，there are
reference materials，which include encyclopedias，dictionaries，bibliographies，atlases，etc．and which
generally must be used in the library itself．Third，there are
periodicals—magazines，news－papers，pamphlets—which are filed alphbetically in
racks or which have been micro－filmed to conserve space．Like reference works，periodicals cannot usually be removed from the library．
16．2示范段落分析
主题句：There are three basic kinds of
materials that can be foundin any good library．
分类词（Classifier）：kinds
列举词（Listing Signals）：first，second，third
分类（Categories）：1．books on all subjects
2．reference
materials
3．periodicals
16．2关于如何写分类段落的建议
1）依据一个原则分类
把一事物分类后，要自始至终遵循同一分类原则。在示范段落16－1，分类原则是“the kinds of materials”。
2）所分类别必须互不包容
在示范段落16－1中，属于第一类的“books on all subjects”与属于第二类的“reference materials”界线分明．反之亦然。
3）分类必须完整
如果所分类别不完整，所作的分类则徒劳无益。如上例，所分三种“materials”应包括“all materials in a library”。
4）运用熟悉度方法排列
作者经常根据该读者对所分类别的熟悉程度排列顺序。通常先讨论读者最熟悉的，然后逐步讨论不熟悉的（关于熟悉度法见第19单元）。
5）使用分类词和列举符号
有经验的作者经常使用类词介绍概类，然后使用列举符号表明概类中的各分类。在示范段落16－1中，类词是“kind”，列举符号是“first，second，third”，下面是经常使用的类词：
kind，type，group，thought，way，class，part，element，factor，aspect，division，characteristic，subdivision，reasons，category，等等。
Exercise 16…1
Directions：Read the following paragraph，find out the topic sentence，the classifier，and the categories．
There are three fundamental human body types—endomorphic，mesomorphic，and ectomorphic．The extreme endomorph bines
heavy fat distribution and lack of bony angularity with around face，short neck，wide hips，and heavy limbs．The extreme mesomorph has a solid
chest，slender waist，long torso，and relatively short，powerful arms and legs．Extreme ectomorphs are
characterized by their slender bodies，short trunks，long arms and legs，long narrow hands and feet，and lack of fat．
Topic Sentence：____________________________________________
Classifier：_____________
Categories：________________________________________________
Exercise 16－2
Directions：Divide the books college students often read into three kinds and
describe them one by one．
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Exercise 16…3
Directions：Write a paragraph of division and catagory with the given topic
sentence and details．
Topic sentence：A language is made up of many elements
Details：1．sounds 2．words 3．sentences
______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________