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＇2＇ Mr。 Tylor gives an account of the Cistercian gesture…language in his ‘Early History of Mankind' （2nd edit。 1870； p。 40）； and makes some remarks on the principle of opposition in gestures。
＇3＇ See on this subject Dr。 W。 R。 Scott's interesting work； ‘The Deaf and Dumb；' 2nd edit。 1870； p。 12。 He says； 〃This contracting of natural gestures into much shorter gestures than the natural expression requires； is very common amongst the deaf and dumb。 This contracted gesture is frequently so shortened as nearly to lose all semblance of the natural one； but to the deaf and dumb who use it； it still has the force of the original expression。〃
Many signs； moreover； which plainly stand in opposition to each other； appear to have had on both sides a significant origin。 This seems to hold good with the signs used by the deal and dumb for light and darkness； for strength and weakness； &c。 In a future chapter I shall endeavour to show that the opposite gestures of affirmation and negation； namely； vertically nodding and laterally shaking the head； have both probably had a natural beginning。 The waving of the hand from right to left； which is used as a negative by some savages； may have been invented in imitation of shaking the head； but whether the opposite movement of waving the hand in a straight line from the face； which is used in affirmation； has arisen through antithesis or in some quite distinct manner； is doubtful。
If we now turn to the gestures which are innate or common to all the individuals of the same species； and which come under the present head of antithesis； it is extremely doubtful； whether any of them were at first deliberately invented and consciously performed。 With mankind the best instance of a gesture standing in direct opposition to other movements； naturally assumed under an opposite frame of mind； is that of shrugging the shoulders。 This expresses impotence or an apology；something which cannot be done； or cannot be avoided。 The gesture is sometimes used consciously and voluntarily； but it is extremely improbable that it was at first deliberately invented； and afterwards fixed by habit； for not only do young children sometimes shrug their shoulders under the above states of mind； but the movement is accompanied； as will be shown in a future chapter； by various subordinate movements； which not one man in a thousand is aware of； unless he has specially attended to the subject。
Dogs when approaching a strange dog； may find it useful to show by their movements that they are friendly； and do not wish to fight。 When two young dogs in play are growling and biting each other's faces and legs； it is obvious that they mutually understand each other's gestures and manners。 There seems； indeed； some degree of instinctive knowledge in puppies and kittens； that they must not use their sharp little teeth or claws too freely in their play； though this sometimes happens and a squeal is the result； otherwise they would often injure each other's eyes。 When my terrier bites my hand in play； often snarling at the same time； if he bites too hard and I say GENTLY； GENTLY； he goes on biting； but answers me by a few wags of the tail； which seems to say 〃Never mind； it is all fun。〃 Although dogs do thus express； and may wish to express； to other dogs and to man； that they are in a friendly state of mind； it is incredible that they could ever have deliberately thought of drawing back and depressing their ears； instead of holding them erect；of lowering and wagging their tails； instead of keeping them stiff and upright； &c。； because they knew that these movements stood in direct opposition to those assumed under an opposite and savage frame of mind。
Again； when a cat； or rather when some early progenitor of the species； from feeling affectionate first slightly arched its back； held its tail perpendicularly upwards and pricked its ears； can it be believed that the animal consciously wished thus to show that its frame of mind was directly the reverse of that； when from being ready to fight or to spring on its prey； it assumed a crouching attitude； curled its tail from side to side and depressed its ears？ Even still less can I believe that my dog voluntarily put on his dejected attitude and 〃_hot…house face_；〃 which formed so complete a contrast to his previous cheerful attitude and whole bearing。 It cannot be supposed that he knew that I should understand his expression； and that he could thus soften my heart and make me give up visiting the hot…house。
Hence for the development of the movements which come under the present head； some other principle； distinct from the will and consciousness； must have intervened。 This principle appears to be that every movement which we have voluntarily performed throughout our lives has required the action of certain muscles； and when we have performed a directly opposite movement； an opposite set of muscles has been habitually brought into play； as in turning to the right or to the left； in pushing away or pulling an object towards us； and in lifting or lowering a weight。 So strongly are our intentions and movements associated together； that if we eagerly wish an object to move in any direction； we can hardly avoid moving our bodies in the same direction； although we may be perfectly aware that this can have no influence。 A good illustration of this fact has already been given in the Introduction； namely； in the grotesque movements of a young and eager billiard…player； whilst watching the course of his ball。 A man or child in a passion； if he tells any one in a loud voice to begone； generally moves his arm as if to push him away； although the offender may not be standing near； and although there may be not the least need to explain by a gesture what is meant。 On the other hand； if we eagerly desire some one to approach us closely； we act as if pulling him towards us； and so in innumerable other instances。
As the performance of ordinary movements of an opposite kind； under opposite impulses of the will； has become habitual in us and in the lower animals； so when actions of one kind have become firmly associated with any sensation or emotion； it appears natural that actions of a directly opposite kind； though of no use； should be unconsciously performed through habit and association； under the influence of a directly opposite sensation or emotion。 On this principle alone can I understand how the gestures and expressions which come under the present head of antithesis have originated。 If indeed they are serviceable to man or to any other animal； in aid of inarticulate cries or language； they will likewise be voluntarily employed； and the habit will thus be strengthened。 But whether or not of service as a means of communication； the tendency to perform opposite movements under opposite sensations or emotions would； if we may judge by analogy； become hereditary through long practice； and there cannot be a doubt that several expressive movements due to the principle of antithesis are inherited。
CHAPTER III。
GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF EXPRESSION_concluded_。
The principle of direct action of the excited nervous system on the body； independently of the will and in part of habit Change of colour in the hairTrembling of the muscles Modified secretionsPerspirationExpression of extreme pain Of rage； great joy； and terrorContrast between the emotions which cause and do not cause expressive movementsExciting and depressing states of the mindSummary。
WE now come to our third Principle； namely； that certain actions which we recognize as expressive of certain states of the mind； are the direct result of the constitution of the nervous system； and have been from the first independent of the will； and； to a large extent； of habit。 When the sensorium is strongly excited nerve…force is generated in excess； and is transmitted in certain directions； dependent on the connection of the nerve…cells； and； as far as the muscular system is concerned； on the nature of the movements which have been habitually practised。 Or the supply of nerve…force may； as it appears； be interrupted。 Of course every movement which we make is determined by the constitution of the nervous system； but actions performed in obedience to the will； or through habit； or through the principle of antithesis； are here as far as possible excluded。 Our present subject is very obscure； but； from its importance； must be discussed at some little length； and it is always advisable to perceive clearly our ignorance。
The most striking case； though a rare and abnormal one； which can be adduced of the direct influence of the nervous system； when strongly affected； on the body； is the loss of colour in the hair； which has occasionally been observed after extreme terror or grief。 One authentic instance has been recorded； in the case of a man brought out for execution in India； in which the change of colour was so rapid that it was perceptible to the eye。＇1＇
Another good case is that of the trembling of the muscles； which is common to man and to many； or most； of the lower animals。 Trembling is of no service； often of much disservice； and cannot have been at first acquired through the will； and then rendered habitual in association with any em