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auses hereafter to be discussed； are somewhat protruded； and this form of the mouth； if the voice be at all exerted； produces； according to Helmholtz； the sound of the vowel _O_。 Certainly a deep sound of a prolonged _Oh！_ may be heard from a whole crowd of people immediately after witnessing any astonishing spectacle。 If； together with surprise； pain be felt； there is a tendency to contract all the muscles of the body； including those of the face； and the lips will then be drawn back； and this will perhaps account for the sound becoming higher and assuming the character of _Ah！_ or _Ach！_ As fear causes all the muscles of the body to tremble； the voice naturally becomes tremulous； and at the same time husky from the dryness of the mouth； owing to the salivary glands failing to act。 Why the laughter of man and the tittering of monkeys should be a rapidly reiterated sound； cannot be explained。 During the utterance of these sounds； the mouth is transversely elongated by the corners being drawn backwards and upwards； and of this fact an explanation will be attempted in a future chapter。 But the whole subject of the differences of the sounds produced under different states of the mind is so obscure； that I have succeeded in throwing hardly any light on it； and the remarks which I have made； have but little significance。
All the sounds hitherto noticed depend on the respiratory organs； but sounds produced by wholly different means are likewise expressive。 Rabbits stamp loudly on the ground as a signal to their comrades； and if a man knows how to do so properly； he may on a quiet evening hear the rabbits answering him all around。 These animals； as well as some others； also stamp on the ground when made angry。 Porcupines rattle their quills and vibrate their tails when angered； and one behaved in this manner when a live snake was placed in its compartment。 The tail of the quills on the tail are very different from those on the body： they are short； hollow； thin like a goose…quill； with their ends transversely truncated； so that they are open； they are supported on long； thin； elastic foot…stalks。 Now； when the tail is rapidly shaken； these hollow quills strike against each other and produce； as I heard in the presence of Mr。 Bartlett； a peculiar continuous sound。 We can； I think； understand why porcupines have been provided； through the modification of their protective spines； with this special sound…producing instrument。 They are nocturnal animals； and if they scented or heard a prowling beast of prey； it would be a great advantage to them in the dark to give warning to their enemy what they were； and that they were furnished with dangerous spines。 They would thus escape being attacked。 They are； as I may add； so fully conscious of the power of their weapons； that when enraged they will charge backwards with their spines erected； yet still inclined backwards。
Many birds during their courtship produce diversified sounds by means of specially adapted feathers。 Storks； when excited； make a loud clattering noise with their beaks。 Some snakes produce a grating or rattling noise。 Many insects stridulate by rubbing together specially modified parts of their hard integuments。 This stridulation generally serves as a sexual charm or call； but it is likewise used to express different emotions。＇8＇ Every one who has attended to bees knows that their humming changes when they are angry； and this serves as a warning that there is danger of being stung。 I have made these few remarks because some writers have laid so much stress on the vocal and respiratory organs as having been specially adapted for expression； that it was advisable to show that sounds otherwise produced serve equally well for the same purpose。
_Erection of the dermal appendages_。Hardly any expressive movement is so general as the involuntary erection of the hairs； feathers and other dermal appendages； for it is common throughout three of the great vertebrate classes。 These appendages are erected under the excitement of anger or terror； more especially when these emotions are combined； or quickly succeed each other。 The action serves to make the animal appear larger and more frightful to its enemies or rivals； and is generally accompanied by various voluntary movements adapted for the same purpose； and by the utterance of savage sounds。 Mr。 Bartlett； who has had such wide experience with animals of all kinds； does not doubt that this is the case； but it is a different question whether the power of erection was primarily acquired for this special purpose。
＇8＇ I have given some details on this subject in my ‘Descent of Man；' vol。 i。 pp。 352； 384。
I will first give a considerable body of facts showing how general this action is with mammals； birds and reptiles； retaining what I have to say in regard to man for a future chapter。 Mr。 Sutton； the intelligent keeper in the Zoological Gardens； carefully observed for me the Chimpanzee and Orang； and he states that when they are suddenly frightened； as by a thunderstorm； or when they are made angry； as by being teased； their hair becomes erect。 I saw a chimpanzee who was alarmed at the sight of a black coalheaver； and the hair rose all over his body； he made little starts forward as if to attack the man； without any real intention of doing so； but with the hope； as the keeper remarked； of frightening him。 The Gorilla； when enraged； is described by Mr。 Ford＇9＇ as having his crest of hair 〃erect and projecting forward； his nostrils dilated； and his under lip thrown down； at the same time uttering his characteristic yell； designed； it would seem； to terrify his antagonists。〃 I saw the hair on the Anubis baboon； when angered bristling along the back； from the neck to the loins； but not on the rump or other parts of the body。 I took a stuffed snake into the monkey…house； and the hair on several of the species instantly became erect； especially on their tails； as I particularly noticed with the _Cereopithecus nictitans_。 Brehm states＇10＇ that the _Midas aedipus_ （belonging to the American division） when excited erects its mane； in order； as he adds； to make itself as frightful as possible。
＇9＇ As quoted in Huxley's ‘Evidence as to Man's Place in Nature；' 1863； p。 52。
With the Carnivora the erection of the hair seems to be almost universal； often accompanied by threatening movements； the uncovering of the teeth and the utterance of savage growls。 In the Herpestes； I have seen the hair on end over nearly the whole body； including the tail； and the dorsal crest is erected in a conspicuous manner by the Hyaena and Proteles。 The enraged lion erects his mane。 The bristling of the hair along the neck and back of the dog； and over the whole body of the cat； especially on the tail； is familiar to every one。 With the cat it apparently occurs only under fear； with the dog； under anger and fear； but not； as far as I have observed； under abject fear； as when a dog is going to be flogged by a severe gamekeeper。 If； however； the dog shows fight； as sometimes happens； up goes his hair。 I have often noticed that the hair of a dog is particularly liable to rise； if he is half angry and half afraid； as on beholding some object only indistinctly seen in the dusk。
I have been assured by a veterinary surgeon that he has often seen the hair erected on horses and cattle； on which he had operated and was again going to operate。 When I showed a stuffed snake to a Peccary； the hair rose in a wonderful manner along its back； and so it does with the boar when enraged。 An Elk which gored a man to death in the United States； is described as first brandishing his antlers； squealing with rage and stamping on the ground； 〃at length his hair was seen to rise and stand on end；〃 and then he plunged forward to the attack。＇11＇ The hair likewise becomes erect on goats； and； as I hear from Mr。 Blyth； on some Indian antelopes。 I have seen it erected on the hairy Ant…eater； and on the Agouti； one of the Rodents。 A female Bat；＇12＇ which reared her young under confinement； when any one looked into the cage 〃erected the fur on her back； and bit viciously at intruding fingers。〃
＇10＇ Illust。 Thierleben； 1864； B。 i。 s。 130。
Birds belonging to all the chief Orders ruffle their feathers when angry or frightened。 Every one must have seen two cocks； even quite young birds； preparing to fight with erected neck…hackles； nor can these feathers when erected serve as a means of defence； for cock…fighters have found by experience that it is advantageous to trim them。 The male Ruff （_Machetes pugnax_） likewise erects its collar of feathers when fighting。 When a dog approaches a common hen with her chickens； she spreads out her wings； raises her tail； ruffles all her feathers； and looking as ferocious as possible； dashes at the intruder。 The tail is not always held in exactly the same position； it is sometimes so much erected； that the central feathers； as in the accompanying drawing； almost touch the back。 Swans； when angered； likewise raise their wings and tail； and erect their feathers。 They open their beaks； and make by paddling little rapid starts forwards； against any one who approaches the water's edge too closely。 Tropic birds＇13＇ when disturbed on