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se muscles； from their attachment and position； are fitted 〃a resserrer； a concentrer les principaux traits de la _face_； comme il convient dans toutes ces passions vraiment oppressives ou profondes； dans ces affections dont le sentiment semble porter l'organisation a revenir sur elle…meme； a se contracter et a _s'amoindrir_； comme pour offrir moins de prise et de surface a des impressions redoutables ou importunes。〃 He who thinks that remarks of this kind throw any light on the meaning or origin of the different expressions； takes a very different view of the subject to what I do。
＇6＇ ‘L'Art de connaitre les Hommes；' &c。； par G。 Lavater。 The earliest edition of this work； referred to in the preface to the edition of 1820 in ten volumes； as containing the observations of M。 Moreau； is said to have been published in 1807； and I have no doubt that this is correct； because the ‘Notice sur Lavater' at the commencement of volume i。 is dated April 13； 1806。 In some bibliographical works； however； the date of 18051809 is given； but it seems impossible that 1805 can be correct。 Dr。 Duchenne remarks （‘Mecanisme de la Physionomie Humaine；'…8vo edit。 1862； p。 5； and ‘Archives Generales de Medecine；' Jan。 et Fev。 1862） that M。 Moreau 〃_a compose pour son ouvrage un article important_；〃 &c。； in the year 1805； and I find in volume i。 of the edition of 1820 passages bearing the dates of December 12； 1805； and another January 5； 1806； besides that of April 13； 1806； above referred to。 In consequence of some of these passages having thus been COMPOSED in 1805； Dr。 Duchenne assigns to M。 Moreau the priority over Sir C。 Bell； whose work； as we have seen； was published in 1806。 This is a very unusual manner of determining the priority of scientific works； but such questions are of extremely little importance in comparison with their relative merits。 The passages above quoted from M。 Moreau and from Le Brun are taken in this and all other cases from the edition of 1820 of Lavater； tom。 iv。 p。 228； and tom。 ix。 p。 279。 〃 In the above passage there is but a slight； if any； advance in the philosophy of the subject； beyond that reached by the painter Le Brun； who； in 1667； in describing the expression of fright； says：〃Le sourcil qui est abaisse d'un cote et eleve de l'autre； fait voir que la partie elevee semble le vouloir joindre au cerveau pour le garantir du mal que l'ame apercoit； et le cote qui est abaisse et qui parait enfle； …nous fait trouver dans cet etat par les esprits qui viennent du cerveau en abondance； comme polir couvrir l'aine et la defendre du mal qu'elle craint； la bouche fort ouverte fait voir le saisissement du coeur； par le sang qui se retire vers lui； ce qui l'oblige； voulant respirer； a faire un effort qui est cause que la bouche s'ouvre extremement； et qui； lorsqu'il passe par les organes de la voix； forme un son qui n'est point articule； que si les muscles et les veines paraissent enfles； ce n'est que par les esprits que le cerveau envoie en ces parties…la。〃 I have thought the foregoing sentences worth quoting； as specimens of the surprising nonsense which has been written on the subject。
‘The Physiology or Mechanism of Blushing；' by Dr。 Burgess； appeared in 1839； and to this work I shall frequently refer in my thirteenth Chapter。
In 1862 Dr。 Duchenne published two editions； in folio and octavo； of his ‘Mecanisme de la Physionomie Humaine；' in which he analyses by means of electricity； and illustrates by magnificent photographs； the movements of the facial muscles。 He has generously permitted me to copy as many of his photographs as I desired。 His works have been spoken lightly of； or quite passed over； by some of his countrymen。 It is possible that Dr。 Duchenne may have exaggerated the importance of the contraction of single muscles in giving expression； for； owing to the intimate manner in which the muscles are connected； as may be seen in Henle's anatomical drawings＇7＇the best I believe ever published it is difficult to believe in their separate action。 Nevertheless； it is manifest that Dr。 Duchenne clearly apprehended this and other sources of error； and as it is known that he was eminently successful in elucidating the physiology of the muscles of the hand by the aid of electricity； it is probable that he is generally in the right about the muscles of the face。 In my opinion； Dr。 Duchenne has greatly advanced the subject by his treatment of it。 No one has more carefully studied the contraction of each separate muscle； and the consequent furrows produced on the skin。 He has also； and this is a very important service； shown which muscles are least under the separate control of the will。 He enters very little into theoretical considerations； and seldom attempts to explain why certain muscles and not others contract under the influence of certain emotions。 A distinguished French anatomist； Pierre Gratiolet； gave a course of lectures on Expression at the Sorbonne； and his notes were published （1865） after his death； under the title of ‘De la Physionomie et des Mouvements d'Expression。' This is a very interesting work； full of valuable observations。 His theory is rather complex； and； as far as it can be given in a single sentence （p。 65）； is as follows：〃Il resulte； de tous les faits que j'ai rappeles； que les sens； l'imagination et la pensee ellememe； si elevee； si abstraite qu'on la suppose； ne peuvent s'exercer sans eveiller un sentiment correlatif； et que ce sentiment se traduit directement； sympathiquement； symboliquement ou metaphoriquement； dans toutes les spheres des organs exterieurs； qui la racontent tous； suivant leur mode d'action propre； comme si chacun d'eux avait ete directement affecte。〃
＇7＇ ‘Handbuch der Systematischen Anatomie des Menschen。' Band I。 Dritte Abtheilung； 1858。
Gratiolet appears to overlook inherited habit； and even to some extent habit in the individual； and therefore he fails； as it seems to me； to give the right explanation； or any explanation at all； of many gestures and expressions。 As an illustration of what he calls symbolic movements； I will quote his remarks （p。 37）； taken from M。 Chevreul； on a man playing at billiards。 〃Si une bille devie legerement de la direction que le joueur pretend zlui imprimer； ne l'avez…vous pas vu cent fois la pousser du regard； de la tete et meme des epaules； comme si ces mouvements； purement symboliques； pouvaient rectifier son trajet？ Des mouvements non moins significatifs se produisent quand la bille manque d'une impulsion suffisante。 Et cliez les joueurs novices； ils sont quelquefois accuses au point d'eveiller le sourire sur les levres des spectateurs。〃 Such movements； as it appears to me； may be attributed simply to habit。 As often as a man has wished to move an object to one side； he has always pushed it to that side when forwards； he has pushed it forwards； and if he has wished to arrest it； he has pulled backwards。 Therefore； when a man sees his ball travelling in a wrong direction； and he intensely wishes it to go in another direction； he cannot avoid； from long habit； unconsciously performing movements which in other cases he has found effectual。
As an instance of sympathetic movements Gratiolet gives （p。 212） the following case：〃un jeune chien A oreilles droites； auquel son maitre presente de loin quelque viande appetissante； fixe avec ardeur ses yeux sur cet objet dont il suit tous les mouvements； et pendant que les yeux regardent； les deux oreilles se portent en avant comme si cet objet pouvait etre entendu。〃 Here； instead of speaking of sympathy between the ears and eyes； it appears to me more simple to believe； that as dogs during many generations have； whilst intently looking at any object； pricked their ears in order to perceive any sound； and conversely have looked intently in the direction of a sound to which they may have listened； the movements of these organs have become firmly associated together through long…continued habit。
Dr。 Piderit published in 1859 an essay on Expression； which I have not seen； but in which； as he states； he forestalled Gratiolet in many of his views。 In 1867 he published his ‘Wissenschaftliches System der Mimik und Physiognomik。' It is hardly possible to give in a few sentences a fair notion of his views； perhaps the two following sentences will tell as much as can be briefly told： 〃the muscular movements of expression are in part related to imaginary objects； and in part to imaginary sensorial impressions。 In this proposition lies the key to the comprehension of all expressive muscular movements。〃 （s。 25） Again； 〃Expressive movements manifest themselves chiefly in the numerous and mobile muscles of the face； partly because the nerves by which they are set into motion originate in the most immediate vicinity of the mind…organ； but partly also because these muscles serve to support the organs of sense。〃 （s。 26。） If Dr。 Piderit had studied Sir C。 Bell's work； he would probably not have said （s。 101） that violent laughter causes a frown from partaking of the nature of pain； or that with infants （s。 103） the tears irritate the eyes； and thus excite the contraction of the surrounding in muscles。 Many good remarks are scattered throughout this volume； to which I shall hereafter ref