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ing； but they likewise bite each other； and I have known one to bite off half the tail of its antagonist。 At the commencement of their battles they lay back their ears； but afterwards； as they bound over and kick each other； they keep their ears erect； or move them much about。
＇33＇ ‘The Sportsman and Naturalist in Canada；' 1866； p。 53。 p。 53。｛sic｝
Mr。 Bartlett watched a wild boar quarrelling rather savagely with his sow； and both had their mouths open and their ears drawn backwards。 But this does not appear to be a common action with domestic pigs when quarrelling。 Boars fight together by striking upwards with their tusks； and Mr。 Bartlett doubts whether they then draw back their ears。 Elephants； which in like manner fight with their tusks； do not retract their ears； but； on the contrary； erect them when rushing at each other or at an enemy。
The rhinoceroses in the Zoological Gardens fight with their nasal horns； and have never been seen to attempt biting each other except in play； and the keepers are convinced that they do not draw back their ears； like horses and dogs； when feeling savage。 The following statement； therefore； by Sir S。 Baker＇34＇ is inexplicable； namely； that a rhinoceros； which he shot in North Africa； 〃had no ears； they had been bitten off close to the head by another of the same species while fighting； and this mutilation is by no means uncommon。〃
Lastly； with respect to monkeys。 Some kinds； which have moveable ears； and which fight with their teethfor instance the _Cereopithecus ruber_ draw back their ears when irritated just like dogs； and they then have a very spiteful appearance。 Other kinds； as the _Inuus ecaudatus_； apparently do not thus act。 Again； other kindsand this is a great anomaly in comparison with most other animalsretract their ears； show their teeth； and jabber； when they are pleased by being caressed。 I observed this in two or three species of Macacus； and in the _Cynopithecus niger_。 This expression； owing to our familiarity with dogs； would never be recognized as one of joy or pleasure by those unacquainted with monkeys。
＇34＇ ‘The Nile Tributaries of Abyssinia；' 1867； p。 443。
_Erection of the Ears_。This movement requires hardly any notice。 All animals which have the power of freely moving their ears； when they are startled； or when they closely observe any object； direct their ears to the point towards which they are looking； in order to hear any sound from this quarter。 At the same time they generally raise their heads； as all their organs of sense are there situated； and some of the smaller animals rise on their hind…legs。 Even those kinds which squat on the ground or instantly flee away to avoid danger； generally act momentarily in this manner； in order to ascertain the source and nature of the danger。 The head being raised； with erected ears and eyes directed forwards； gives an unmistakable expression of close attention to any animal。 CHAPTER V。
SPECIAL EXPRESSIONS OF ANIMALS。
The Dog； various expressive movements ofCatsHorsesRuminantsMonkeys； their expression of joy and affectionOf painAngerAstonishment and Terror。
_The Dog_。I have already described （figs。 5 and 1） the appearance of a dog approaching another dog with hostile intentions； namely； with erected ears； eyes intently directed forwards； hair on the neck and back bristling； gait remarkably stiff； with the tail upright and rigid。 So familiar is this appearance to us； that an angry man is sometimes said 〃to have his back up。〃 Of the above points； the stiff gait and upright tail alone require further discussion。 Sir C。 Bell remarks＇1＇ that； when a tiger or wolf is struck by its keeper and is suddenly roused to ferocity； every muscle is in tension； and the limbs are in an attitude of strained exertion； prepared to spring。 This tension of the muscles and consequent stiff gait may be accounted for on the principle of associated habit； for anger has continually led to fierce struggles； and consequently to all the muscles of the body having been violently exerted。 There is also reason to suspect that the muscular system requires some short preparation； or some degree of innervation； before being brought into strong action。 My own sensations lead me to this inference； but I cannot discover that it is a conclusion admitted by physiologists。 Sir J。 Paget； however； informs me that when muscles are suddenly contracted with the greatest force； without any preparation； they are liable to be ruptured； as when a man slips unexpectedly； but that this rarely occurs when an action； however violent； is deliberately performed。
＇1＇ ‘The Anatomy of Expression；' 1844； p。 190。
With respect to the upright position of the tail； it seems to depend （but whether this is really the case I know not） on the elevator muscles being more powerful than the depressors； so that when all the muscles of the hinder part of the body are in a state of tension； the tail is raised。 A dog in cheerful spirits； and trotting before his master with high； elastic steps； generally carries his tail aloft； though it is not held nearly so stiffly as when he is angered。 A horse when first turned out into an open field； may be seen to trot with long elastic strides； the head and tail being held high aloft。 Even cows when they frisk about from pleasure； throw up their tails in a ridiculous fashion。 So it is with various animals in the Zoological Gardens。 The position of the tail； however； in certain cases； is determined by special circumstances； thus as soon as a horse breaks into a gallop； at full speed； he always lowers his tail； so that as little resistance as possible may be offered to the air。
When a dog is on the point of springing on his antagonist； be utters a savage growl； the ears are pressed closely backwards； and the upper lip （fig。 14） is retracted out of the way of his teeth； especially of his canines。 These movements may be observed with dogs and puppies in their play。 But if a dog gets really savage in his play； his expression immediately changes。 This； however； is simply due to the lips and ears being drawn back with much greater energy。 If a dog only snarls at another； the lip is generally retracted on one side alone； namely towards his enemy。
The movements of a dog whilst exhibiting affection towards his master were described （figs。 6 and 8） in our second chapter。 These consist in the head and whole body being lowered and thrown into flexuous movements； with the tail extended and wagged from side to side。 The ears fall down and are drawn somewhat backwards； which causes the eyelids to be elongated； and alters the
｛illust。 caption = FIG。 14。Head of snarling Dog。 From life； by Mr。 Wood。 whole appearance of the face。 The lips hang loosely； and the hair remains smooth。 All these movements or gestures are explicable； as I believe； from their standing in complete antithesis to those naturally assumed by a savage dog under a directly opposite state of mind。 When a man merely speaks to； or just notices； his dog；we see the last vestige of these movements in a slight wag of the tail； without any other movement of the body； and without even the ears being lowered。 Dogs also exhibit their affection by desiring to rub against their masters； and to be rubbed or patted by them。 Gratiolet explains the above gestures of affection in the following manner： and the reader can judge whether the explanation appears satisfactory。 Speaking of animals in general； including the dog； he says；＇2＇ 〃C'est toujours la partie la plus sensible de leurs corps qui recherche les caresses ou les donne。 Lorsque toute la longueur des flancs et du corps est sensible； l'animal serpente et rampe sous les caresses； et ces ondulations se propageant le long des muscles analogues des segments jusqu'aux extremites de la colonne vertebrale； la queue se ploie et s'agite。〃 Further on； he adds； that dogs； when feeling affectionate； lower their ears in order to exclude all sounds； so that their whole attention may be concentrated on the caresses of their master！ Dogs have another and striking way of exhibiting their affection； namely； by licking the hands or faces of their masters。 They sometimes lick other dogs； and then it is always their chops。 I have also seen dogs licking cats with whom they were friends。 This habit probably originated in the females carefully licking their puppiesthe dearest object of their lovefor the sake of cleansing them。 They also often give their puppies； after a short absence； a few cursory licks； apparently from affection。 Thus the habit will have become associated with the emotion of love； however it may afterwards be aroused。 It is now so firmly inherited or innate； That it is transmitted equally to both sexes。 A female terrier of mine lately had her puppies destroyed； and though at all times a very affectionate creature； I was much struck with the manner in which she then tried to satisfy her instinctive maternal love by expending it on me； and her desire to lick my hands rose to an insatiable passion。 ＇1＇ ‘De la Physionomie；' 1865； pp。 187； 218。The same principle probably explains why dogs； when feeling affectionate； like rubbing against their masters and being rubbed or patted by them； for from the nursing of