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ature of the circumstances we expect to see any expression； we readily imagine its presence。 Notwithstanding Dr。 Duchenne's great experience； he for a long time fancied； as he states； that several muscles contracted under certain emotions； whereas he ultimately convinced himself that the movement was confined to a single muscle。
In order to acquire as good a foundation as possible； and to ascertain； independently of common opinion； how far particular movements of the features and gestures are really expressive of certain states of the mind； I have found the following means the most serviceable。 In the first place； to observe infants； for they exhibit many emotions； as Sir C。 Bell remarks； 〃with extraordinary force；〃 whereas； in after life； some of our expressions 〃cease to have the pure and simple source from which they spring in infancy。〃＇18＇
In the second place； it occurred to me that the insane ought to be studied； as they are liable to the strongest passions； and give uncontrolled vent to them。 I had； myself； no opportunity of doing this； so I applied to Dr。 Maudsley and received from him an introduction to Dr。 J。 Crichton Browne； who has charge of an immense asylum near Wakefield； and who； as I found； had already attended to the subject。 This excellent observer has with unwearied kindness sent me copious notes and descriptions； with valuable suggestions on many points； and I can hardly over…estimate the value of his assistance。 I owe also； to the kindness of Mr。 Patrick Nicol； of the Sussex Lunatic Asylum； interesting statements on two or three points。
Thirdly Dr。 Duchenne galvanized； as we have already seen； certain muscles in the face of an old man； whose skin was little sensitive； and thus produced various expressions which were photographed on a large scale。 It fortunately occurred to me to show several of the best plates； without a word of explanation； to above twenty educated persons of various ages and both sexes； asking them； in each case； by what emotion or feeling the old man was supposed to be agitated； and I recorded their answers in the words which they used。 Several of the expressions were instantly recognised by almost everyone； though described in not exactly the same terms； and these may； I think； be relied on as truthful； and will hereafter be specified。 On the other hand； the most widely different judgments were pronounced in regard to some of them。 This exhibition was of use in another way； by convincing me how easily we may be misguided by our imagination； for when I first looked through Dr。 Duchenne's photographs； reading at the same time the text； and thus learning what was intended； I was struck with admiration at the truthfulness of all； with only a few exceptions。 Nevertheless； if I had examined them without any explanation； no doubt I should have been as much perplexed； in some cases； as other persons have been。
＇18＇ 〃Anatomy of Expression；' 3rd edit。 p。 198。
Fourthly； I had hoped to derive much aid from the great masters in painting and sculpture； who are such close observers。 Accordingly； I have looked at photographs and engravings of many well…known works； but； with a few exceptions； have not thus profited。 The reason no doubt is； that in works of art； beauty is the chief object； and strongly contracted facial muscles destroy beauty。＇19＇ The story of the composition is generally told with wonderful force and truth by skilfully given accessories。
＇19＇ See remarks to this effect in Lessing's ‘Lacooon；' translated by W。 Ross； 1836； p。 19。
Fifthly； it seemed to me highly important to ascertain whether the same expressions and gestures prevail； as has often been asserted without much evidence； with all the races of mankind； especially with those who have associated but little with Europeans。 Whenever the same movements of the features or body express the same emotions in several distinct races of man； we may infer with much probability； that such expressions are true ones；that is； are innate or instinctive。 Conventional expressions or gestures； acquired by the individual during early life； would probably have differed in the different races； in the same manner as do their languages。 Accordingly I circulated； early in the year 1867； the following printed queries with a request； which has been fully responded to； that actual observations； and not memory； might be trusted。 These queries were written after a considerable interval of time； during which my attention had been otherwise directed； and I can now see that they might have been greatly improved。 To some of the later copies； I appended； in manuscript； a few additional remarks：
（1。） Is astonishment expressed by the eyes and mouth being opened wide； and by the eyebrows being raised？
（2。） Does shame excite a blush when the colour of the skin allows it to be visible？ and especially how low down the body does the blush extend？
（3。） When a man is indignant or defiant does he frown； hold his body and head erect； square his shoulders and clench his fists？
（4） When considering deeply on any subject； or trying to understand any puzzle； does he frown； or wrinkle the skin beneath the lower eyelids？
（5。） When in low spirits； are the corners of the mouth depressed； and the inner corner of the eyebrows raised by that muscle which the French call the 〃Grief muscle〃？ The eyebrow in this state becomes slightly oblique； with a little swelling at the Inner end； and the forehead is transversely wrinkled in the middle part； but not across the whole breadth； as when the eyebrows are raised in surprise。 （6。） When in good spirits do the eyes sparkle； with the skin a little wrinkled round and under them； and with the mouth a little drawn back at the corners？
（7。） When a man sneers or snarls at another； is the corner of the upper lip over the canine or eye tooth raised on the side facing the man whom he addresses？
（8） Can a dogged or obstinate expression be recognized； which is chiefly shown by the mouth being firmly closed； a lowering brow and a slight frown？
（9。） Is contempt expressed by a slight protrusion of the lips and by turning up the nose； and with a slight expiration？
（10） Is disgust shown by the lower lip being turned down； the upper lip slightly raised； with a sudden expiration； something like incipient vomiting； or like something spit out of the mouth？
（11。） Is extreme fear expressed in the same general manner as with Europeans？
（12。） Is laughter ever carried to such an extreme as to bring tears into the eyes？
（13。） When a man wishes to show that he cannot prevent something being done； or cannot himself do something； does he shrug his shoulders； turn inwards his elbows； extend outwards his hands and open the palms； with the eyebrows raised？
（14） Do the children when sulky； pout or greatly protrude the lips？
（15。） Can guilty； or sly； or jealous expressions be recognized？ though I know not how these can be defined。
（16。） Is the head nodded vertically in affirmation； and shaken laterally in negation？
Observations on natives who have had little communication with Europeans would be of course the most valuable； though those made on any natives would be of much interest to me。 General remarks on expression are of comparatively little value； and memory is so deceptive that I earnestly beg it may not be trusted。 A definite description of the countenance under any emotion or frame of mind； with a statement of the circumstances under which it occurred； would possess much value。
To these queries I have received thirty…six answers from different observers； several of them missionaries or protectors of the aborigines； to all of whom I am deeply indebted for the great trouble which they have taken； and for the valuable aid thus received。 I will specify their names； &c。； towards the close of this chapter； so as not to interrupt my present remarks。 The answers relate to several of the most distinct and savage races of man。 In many instances； the circumstances have been recorded under which each expression was observed； and the expression itself described。 In such cases； much confidence may be placed in the answers。 When the answers have been simply yes or no； I have always received them with caution。 It follows； from the information thus acquired； that the same state of mind is expressed throughout the world with remarkable uniformity； and this fact is in itself interesting as evidence of the close similarity in bodily structure and mental disposition of all the races； of mankind。
Sixthly； and lastly； I have attended。 as closely as I could； to the expression of the several passions in some of the commoner animals； and this I believe to be of paramount importance； not of course for deciding how far in man certain expressions are characteristic of certain states of mind； but as affording the safest basis for generalisation on the causes； or origin； of the various movements of Expression。 In observing animals； we are not so likely to be biassed by our imagination； and we may feel safe that their expressions are not conventional。
From the reasons above assigned； namely； the fleeting nature of some expressions （the changes in the features being often extremely slight）； our sympathy being easily