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commonly gives to the countenance； as Sir C。 Bell remarks； an aspect of intellectual energy。 But in order that this effect may be produced； the eyes must be clear and steady； or they may be cast downwards； as often occurs in deep thought。 The countenance must not be otherwise disturbed； as in the case of an ill…tempered or peevish man； or of one who shows the effects of prolonged suffering； with dulled eyes and drooping jaw； or who perceives a bad taste in his food； or who finds it difficult to perform some trifling act； such as threading a needle。 In these cases a frown may often be seen； but it will be accompanied by some other expression； which will entirely prevent the countenance having an appearance of intellectual energy or of profound thought。
＇4＇ ‘History of the Abipones；' Eng。 translat。 vol。 ii。 p。 59； as quoted by Lubbock； ‘Origin of Civilisation；' 1870； p。 355。
We may now inquire how it is that a frown should express the perception of something difficult or disagreeable； either in thought or action。 In the same way as naturalists find it advisable to trace the embryological development of an organ in order fully to understand its structure； so with the movements of expression it is advisable to follow as nearly as possible the same plan。 The earliest and almost sole expression seen during the first days of infancy； and then often exhibited is that displayed during the act of screaming； and screaming is excited； both at first and for some time afterwards； by every distressing or displeasing sensation and emotion；by hunger； pain； anger； jealousy； fear； &c。 At such times the muscles round the eyes are strongly contracted； and this； as I believe； explains to a large extent the act of frowning during the remainder of our lives。 I repeatedly observed my own infants； from under the age of one week to that of two or three months； and found that when a screaming…fit came on gradually； the first sign was the contraction of the corrugators； which produced a slight frown； quickly followed by the contraction of the other muscles round the eyes。 When an infant is uncomfortable or unwell； little frownsas I record in my notesmay be seen incessantly passing like shadows over its face； these being generally； but not always； followed sooner or later by a crying…fit。 For instance； I watched for some time a baby； between seven and eight weeks old； sucking some milk which was cold； and therefore displeasing to him； and a steady little frown was maintained all the time。 This was never developed into an actual crying…fit； though occasionally every stage of close approach could be observed。
As the habit of contracting the brows has been followed by infants during innumerable generations； at the commencement of every crying or screaming fit； it has become firmly associated with the incipient sense of something distressing or disagreeable。 Hence under similar circumstances it would be apt to be continued during maturity； although never then developed into a crying…fit。 Screaming or weeping begins to be voluntarily restrained at an early period of life； whereas frowning is hardly ever restrained at any age。 It is perhaps worth notice that with children much given to weeping； anything which perplexes their minds； and which would cause most other children merely to frown； readily makes them weep。 So with certain classes of the insane； any effort of mind； however slight； which with an habitual frowner would cause a slight frown； leads to their weeping in an unrestrained manner。 It is not more surprising that the habit of contracting the brows at the first perception of something distressing； although gained during infancy； should be retained during the rest of our lives； than that many other associated habits acquired at an early age should be permanently retained both by man and the lower animals。 For instance； full…grown cats； when feeling warm and comfortable； often retain the habit of alternately protruding their fore…feet with extended toes； which habit they practised for a definite purpose whilst sucking their mothers。
Another and distinct cause has probably strengthened the habit of frowning； whenever the mind is intent on any subject and encounters some difficulty。 Vision is the most important of all the senses； and during primeval times the closest attention must have been incessantly： directed towards distant objects for the sake of obtaining prey and avoiding danger。 I remember being struck； whilst travelling in parts of South America； which were dangerous from the presence of Indians； how incessantly； yet as it appeared unconsciously； the half…wild Gauchos closely scanned the whole horizon。 Now； when any one with no covering on his head （as must have been aboriginally the case with mankind）； strives to the utmost to distinguish in broad daylight； and especially if the sky is bright； a distant object； he almost invariably contracts his brows to prevent the entrance of too much light； the lower eyelids； cheeks； and upper lip being at the same time raised； so as to lessen the orifice of the eyes。 I have purposely asked several persons； young and old； to look； under the above circumstances； at distant objects； making them believe that I only wished to test the power of their vision； and they all behaved in the manner just described。 Some of them； also； put their open； flat hands over their eyes to keep out the excess of light。 Gratiolet； after making some remarks to nearly the same effect；＇5＇ says； 〃Ce sont la des attitudes de vision difficile。〃 He concludes that the muscles round the eyes contract partly for the sake of excluding too much light （which appears to me the more important end）； and partly to prevent all rays striking the retina； except those which come direct from the object that is scrutinized。 Mr。 Bowman； whom I consulted on this point； thinks that the contraction of the surrounding muscles may； in addition； 〃partly sustain the consensual movements of the two eyes； by giving a firmer support while the globes are brought to binocular vision by their own proper muscles。〃
As the effort of viewing with care under a bright light a distant object is both difficult and irksome； and as this effort has been habitually accompanied； during numberless generations； by the contraction of the eyebrows； the habit of frowning will thus have been much strengthened； although it was originally practised during infancy from a quite independent cause； namely as the first step in the protection of the eyes during screaming。 There is； indeed； much analogy； as far as the state of the mind is concerned； between intently scrutinizing a distant object； and following out an obscure train of thought； or performing some little and troublesome mechanical work。 The belief that the habit of contracting the brows is continued when there is no need whatever to exclude too much light； receives support from the cases formerly alluded to； in which the eyebrows or eyelids are acted on under certain circumstances in a useless manner； from having been similarly used； under analogous circumstances； for a serviceable purpose。 For instance； we voluntarily close our eyes when we do not wish to see any object； and we are apt to close them； when we reject a proposition； as if we could not or would not see it； or when we think about something horrible。 We raise our eyebrows when we wish to see quickly all round us； and we often do the same； when we earnestly desire to remember something； acting as if we endeavoured to see it。
＇5＇ ‘De la Physionomie；' pp。 15； 144； 146。 Mr。 Herbert Spencer accounts for frowning exclusively by the habit of contracting the brows as a shade to the eyes in a bright light： see ‘Principles of Physiology；' 2nd edit。 1872； p。 546。
_Abstraction。 Meditation_。When a person is lost in thought with his mind absent； or； as it is sometimes said； 〃when he is in a brown study；〃 he does not frown； but his eyes appear vacant。 The lower eyelids are generally raised and wrinkled； in the same manner as when a short…sighted person tries to distinguish a distant object； and the upper orbicular muscles are at the same time slightly contracted。 The wrinkling of the lower eyelids under these circumstances has been observed with some savages； as by Mr。 Dyson Lacy with the Australians of Queensland； and several times by Mr。 Geach with the Malays of the interior of Malacca。 What the meaning or cause of this action may be； cannot at present be explained； but here we have another instance of movement round the eyes in relation to the state of the mind。
The vacant expression of the eyes is very peculiar； and at once shows when a man is completely lost in thought。 Professor Donders has； with his usual kindness； investigated this subject for me。 He has observed others in this condition； and has been himself observed by Professor Engelmann。 The eyes are not then fixed on any object； and therefore not； as I had imagined； on some distant object。 The lines of vision of the two eyes even often become slightly divergent； the divergence； if the head be held vertically； with the plane of vision horizontal； amounting to an angle of 2'0 as a maximum。 This was ascertained by observing the crossed double image of a distant object。 When the head d