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gures； but the names are given of only the more important ones to which I shall have to allude。 The facial muscles blend much together； and； as I am informed； hardly appear on a dissected face so distinct as they are here represented。 Some writers consider that these muscles consist of nineteen pairs； with one unpaired；＇20＇ but others make the number much larger； amounting even to fifty…five； according to Moreau。 They are； as is admitted by everyone who has written on the subject； very variable in structure； and Moreau remarks that they are hardly alike in half…a…dozen subjects。＇21＇ They are also variable in function。 Thus the power of uncovering the canine tooth on one side differs much in different persons。 The power of raising the wings of the nostrils is also； according to Dr。 Piderit；＇22＇ variable in a remarkable degree； and other such cases could be given。
＇20＇ Mr。 Partridge in Todd's ‘Cyclopaedia of Anatomy and Physiology；' vol。 ii。 p。 227。
＇21＇ ‘La Physionomie；' par G。 Lavater； tom。 iv。 1820； p。 274。 On the number of the facial muscles； see vol。 iv。 pp。 209…211。
＇22＇ 〃 ‘Mimik und Physiognomik；' 1867； s。 91。
Finally； I must have the pleasure of expressing my obligations to Mr。 Rejlander for the trouble which he has taken in photographing for me various expressions and gestures。 I am also indebted to Herr Kindermann； of Hamburg； for the loan of some excellent negatives of crying infants； and to Dr。 Wallich for a charming one of a smiling girl。 I have already expressed my obligations to Dr。 Duchenne for generously permitting me to have some of his large photographs copied and reduced。 All these photographs have been printed by the Heliotype process； and the accuracy of the copy is thus guaranteed。 These plates are referred to by Roman numerals。
I am also greatly indebted to Mr。 T。 W。 Wood for the extreme pains which he has taken in drawing from life the expressions of various animals。 A distinguished artist； Mr。 Riviere； has had the kindness to give me two drawings of dogsone in a hostile and the other in a humble and caressing frame of mind。 Mr。 A。 May has also given me two similar sketches of dogs。 Mr。 Cooper has taken much care in cutting the blocks。 Some of the photographs and drawings； namely； those by Mr。 May； and those by Mr。 Wolf of the Cynopithecus； were first reproduced by Mr。 Cooper on wood by means of photography； and then engraved： by this means almost complete fidelity is ensured。
CHAPTER I。
GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF EXPRESSION。
The three chief principles statedThe first principleServiceable actions become habitual in association with certain states of the mind； and are performed whether or not of service in each particular case The force of habitInheritanceAssociated habitual movements in man Reflex actionsPassage of habits into reflex actionsAssociated habitual movements in the lower animalsConcluding remarks。
I WILL begin by giving the three Principles； which appear to me to account for most of the expressions and gestures involuntarily used by man and the lower animals； under the influence of various emotions and sensations。＇1＇ I arrived； however； at these three Principles only at the close of my observations。 They will be discussed in the present and two following chapters in a general manner。 Facts observed both with man and the lower animals will here be made use of； but the latter facts are preferable； as less likely to deceive us。 In the fourth and fifth chapters； I will describe the special expressions of some of the lower animals； and in the succeeding chapters those of man。 Everyone will thus be able to judge for himself； how far my three principles throw light on the theory of the subject。 It appears to me that so many expressions are thus explained in a fairly satisfactory manner； that probably all will hereafter be found to come under the same or closely analogous heads。 I need hardly premise that movements or changes in any part of the body； as the wagging of a dog's tail； the drawing back of a horse's ears； the shrugging of a man's shoulders； or the dilatation of the capillary vessels of the skin；may all equally well serve for expression。 The three Principles are as follows。
＇1＇ Mr。 Herbert Spencer （‘Essays；' Second Series； 1863； p。 138） has drawn a clear distinction between emotions and sensations； the latter being 〃generated in our corporeal framework。〃 He classes as Feelings both emotions and…sensations。
I。 _The principle of serviceable associated Habits_。Certain complex actions are of direct or indirect service under certain states of the mind； in order to relieve or gratify certain sensations； desires； &c。； and whenever the same state of mind is induced； however feebly； there is a tendency through the force of habit and association for the same movements to be performed； though they may not then be of the least use。 Some actions ordinarily associated through habit with certain states of the mind may be partially repressed through the will； and in such cases the muscles which are least under the separate control of the will are the most liable still to act； causing movements which we recognize as expressive。 In certain other cases the checking of one habitual movement requires other slight movements； and these are likewise expressive。
II。 _The principle of Antithesis_。Certain states of the mind lead to certain habitual actions； which are of service； as under our first principle。 Now when a directly opposite state of mind is induced； there is a strong and involuntary tendency to the performance of movements of a directly opposite nature； though these are of no use； and such movements are in some cases highly expressive。
III。 _The principle of actions due to the constitution of the Nervous System； independently from the first of the Will； and independently to a certain extent of Habit_。… When the sensorium is strongly excited； nerve…force is generated in excess； and is transmitted in certain definite directions； depending on the connection of the nerve…cells； and partly on habit： or the supply of nerve…force may； as it appears； be interrupted。 Effects are thus produced which we recognize as expressive。 This third principle may； for the sake of brevity； be called that of the direct action of the nervous system。
With respect to our _first Principle_； it is notorious how powerful is the force of habit。 The most complex and difficult movements can in time be performed without the least effort or consciousness。 It is not positively known how it comes that habit is so efficient in facilitating complex movements； but physiologists admit＇2＇ 〃that the conducting power of the nervous fibres increases with the frequency of their excitement。〃 This applies to the nerves of motion and sensation； as well as to those connected with the act of thinking。 That some physical change is produced in the nerve…cells or nerves which are habitually used can hardly be doubted； for otherwise it is impossible to understand how the tendency to certain acquired movements is inherited。 That they are inherited we see with horses in certain transmitted paces； such as cantering and ambling； which are not natural to them； in the pointing of young pointers and the setting of young setters in the peculiar manner of flight of certain breeds of the pigeon； &c。 We have analogous cases with mankind in the inheritance of tricks or unusual gestures； to which we shall presently recur。 To those who admit the gradual evolution of species； a most striking instance of the perfection with which the most difficult consensual movements can be transmitted； is afforded by the humming…bird Sphinx…moth （_Macroglossa_）； for this moth； shortly after its emergence from the cocoon； as shown by the bloom on its unruffled scales； may be seen poised stationary in the air； with its long hair…like proboscis uncurled and inserted into the minute orifices of flowers； and no one； I believe； has ever seen this moth learning to perform its difficult task； which requires such unerring aim。
＇2＇ Muller； ‘Elements of Physiology；' Eng。 translat。 vol。 ii。 p。 939。 See also Mr。 H。 Spencer's interesting speculations on the same subject； and on the genesis of nerves； in his ‘Principles of Biology；' vol。 ii。 p。 346； and in his ‘Principles of Psychology；' 2nd edit。 pp。 511…557。
When there exists an inherited or instinctive tendency to the performance of an action； or an inherited taste for certain kinds of food； some degree of habit in the individual is often or generally requisite。 We find this in the paces of the horse； and to a certain extent in the pointing of dogs； although some young dogs point excellently the first time they are taken out； yet they often associate the proper inherited attitude with a wrong odour； and even with eyesight。 I have heard it asserted that if a calf be allowed to suck its mother only once； it is much more difficult afterwards to rear it by hand。＇3＇ Caterpillars which have been fed on the leaves of one kind of tree； have been known to perish from hunger rather than to eat the leaves of another tree； although this afforded them their proper food； under a state of nature；＇4＇ and so it is in many other cases。
＇3＇ A remark to much the same effect was made long