按键盘上方向键 ← 或 → 可快速上下翻页，按键盘上的 Enter 键可回到本书目录页，按键盘上方向键 ↑ 可回到本页顶部！
————未阅读完？加入书签已便下次继续阅读！
closely to their heads； when feeling savage； from their progenitors having voluntarily acted in this manner in order to protect their ears from being torn by their antagonists； for those animals which do not fight with their teeth do not thus express a savage state of mind。 We may infer as highly probable that we ourselves have acquired the habit of contracting the muscles round the eyes； whilst crying gently； that is； without the utterance of any loud sound； from our progenitors； especially during infancy； having experienced； during the act of screaming； an uncomfortable sensation in their eyeballs。 Again； some highly expressive movements result from the endeavour to cheek or prevent other expressive movements； thus the obliquity of the eyebrows and the drawing down of the corners of the mouth follow from the endeavour to prevent a screaming…fit from coming on； or to cheek it after it has come on。 Here it is obvious that the consciousness and will must at first have come into play； not that we are conscious in these or in other such cases what muscles are brought into action； any more than when we perform the most ordinary voluntary movements。
With respect to the expressive movements due to the principle of antithesis； it is clear that the will has intervened； though in a remote and indirect manner。 So again with the movements coming under our third principle； these； in as far as they are influenced by nerve…force readily passing along habitual channels； have been determined by former and repeated exertions of the will。 The effects indirectly due to this latter agency are often combined in a complex manner； through the force of habit and association； with those directly resulting from the excitement of the cerebro…spinal system。 This seems to be the case with the increased action of the heart under the influence of any strong emotion。 When an animal erects its hair； assumes a threatening attitude； and utters fierce sounds； in order to terrify an enemy； we see a curious combination of movements which were originally voluntary with those that are involuntary。 It is； however； possible that even strictly involuntary actions； such as the erection of the hair； may have been affected by the mysterious power of the will。
Some expressive movements may have arisen spontaneously； in association with certain states of the mind； like the tricks lately referred to； and afterwards been inherited。 But I know of no evidence rendering this view probable。
The power of communication between the members of the same tribe by means of language has been of paramount importance in the development of man； and the force of language is much aided by the expressive movements of the face and body。 We perceive this at once when we converse on an important subject with any person whose face is concealed。 Nevertheless there are no grounds； as far as I can discover； for believing that any muscle has been developed or even modified exclusively for the sake of expression。 The vocal and other sound…producing organs； by which various expressive noises are produced； seem to form a partial exception； but I have elsewhere attempted to show that these organs were first developed for sexual purposes； in order that one sex might call or charm the other。 Nor can I discover grounds for believing that any inherited movement； which now serves as a means of expression； was at first voluntarily and consciously performed for this special purpose；like some of the gestures and the finger…language used by the deaf and dumb。 On the contrary； every true or inherited movement of expression seems to have had some natural and independent origin。 But when once acquired； such movements may be voluntarily and consciously employed as a means of communication。 Even infants； if carefully attended to； find out at a very early age that their screaming brings relief； and they soon voluntarily practise it。 We may frequently see a person voluntarily raising his eyebrows to express surprise； or smiling to express pretended satisfaction and acquiescence。 A man often wishes to make certain gestures conspicuous or demonstrative； and will raise his extended arms with widely opened fingers above his head； to show astonishment； or lift his shoulders to his ears； to show that he cannot or will not do something。 The tendency to such movements will be strengthened or increased by their being thus voluntarily and repeatedly performed； and the effects may be inherited。
It is perhaps worth consideration whether movements at first used only by one or a few individuals to express a certain state of mind may not sometimes have spread to others； and ultimately have become universal； through the power of conscious and unconscious imitation。 That there exists in man a strong tendency to imitation； independently of the conscious will； is certain。 This is exhibited in the most extraordinary manner in certain brain diseases； especially at the commencement of inflammatory softening of the brain； and has been called the 〃echo sign。〃 Patients thus affected imitate； without understanding every absurd gesture which is made； and every word which is uttered near them； even in a foreign language。＇1＇ In the case of animals； the jackal and wolf have learnt under confinement to imitate the barking of the dog。 How the barking of the dog； which serves to express various emotions and desires； and which is so remarkable from having been acquired since the animal was domesticated； and from being inherited in different degrees by different breeds； was first learnt we do not know； but may we not suspect that imitation has had something to do with its acquisition； owing to dogs having long lived in strict association with so loquacious an animal as man？
＇1＇ See the interesting facts given by Dr。 Bateman on ‘Aphasia；' 1870； p。 110。
In the course of the foregoing remarks and throughout this volume； I have often felt much difficulty about the proper application of the terms； will； consciousness； and intention。 Actions； which were at first voluntary； soon became habitual； and at last hereditary； and may then be performed even in opposition to the will。 Although they often reveal the state of the mind； this result was not at first either intended or expected。 Even such words as that 〃certain movements serve as a means of expression〃 are apt to mislead； as they imply that this was their primary purpose or object。 This； however； seems rarely or never to have been the case； the movements having been at first either of some direct use； or the indirect effect of the excited state of the sensorium。 An infant may scream either intentionally or instinctively to show that it wants food； but it has no wish or intention to draw its features into the peculiar form which so plainly indicates misery； yet some of the most characteristic expressions exhibited by man are derived from the act of screaming； as has been explained。
Although most of our expressive actions are innate or instinctive； as is admitted by everyone； it is a different question whether we have any instinctive power of recognizing them。 This has generally been assumed to be the case； but the assumption has been strongly controverted by M。 Lemoine。＇2＇ Monkeys soon learn to distinguish； not only the tones of voice of their masters； but the expression of their faces； as is asserted by a careful observer。＇3＇ Dogs well know the difference between caressing and threatening gestures or tones； and they seem to recognize a compassionate tone。 But as far as I can make out； after repeated trials； they do not understand any movement confined to the features； excepting a smile or laugh； and this they appear； at least in some cases； to recognize。 This limited amount of knowledge has probably been gained； both by monkeys and dogs； through their associating harsh or kind treatment with our actions； and the knowledge certainly is not instinctive。 Children； no doubt； would soon learn the movements of expression in their elders in the same manner as animals learn those of man。 Moreover； when a child cries or laughs； he knows in a general manner what he is doing and what he feels； so that a very small exertion of reason would tell him what crying or laughing meant in others。 But the question is； do our children acquire their knowledge of expression solely by experience through the power of association and reason？
As most of the movements of expression must have been gradually acquired； afterwards becoming instinctive； there seems to be some degree of _a priori_ probability that their recognition would likewise have become instinctive。 There is； at least； no greater difficulty in believing this than in admitting that； when a female quadruped first bears young； she knows the cry of distress of her offspring； or than in admitting that many animals instinctively recognize and fear their enemies； and of both these statements there can be no reasonable doubt。 It is however extremely difficult to prove that our children instinctively recognize any expression。 I attended to this point in my first…born infant； who could not have learnt anything by associating with other children； and I was convinced that he understood a smile and received pleasure from seeing one； answering it by anothe