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the labours of a woman in travail； is regarded by him as a rite
instituted in Ariadne's honour； and the Carian adoration of
asparagus as a simple commemoration of the adventure of the nymph
Perigune。 In the first of these WE discern the beginning of
agnation and kinsmanship through the father； which still lingers in
the 'couvee' of New Zealand tribes： while the second is a relic of
the totem and fetish worship of plants。
Now； in entire opposition to this modern inductive principle of
research stands the philosophic Plato； whose account of primitive
man is entirely speculative and deductive。
The origin of society he ascribes to necessity； the mother of all
inventions； and imagines that individual man began deliberately to
herd together on account of the advantages of the principle of
division of labour and the rendering of mutual need。
It must； however； be borne in mind that Plato's object in this
whole passage in the REPUBLIC was； perhaps； not so much to analyse
the conditions of early society as to illustrate the importance of
the division of labour； the shibboleth of his political economy； by
showing what a powerful factor it must have been in the most
primitive as well as in the most complex states of society； just as
in the LAWS he almost rewrites entirely the history of the
Peloponnesus in order to prove the necessity of a balance of power。
He surely； I mean； must have recognised himself how essentially
incomplete his theory was in taking no account of the origin of
family life； the position and influence of women； and other social
questions； as well as in disregarding those deeper motives of
religion； which are such important factors in early civilisation；
and whose influence Aristotle seems to have clearly apprehended；
when he says that the aim of primitive society was not merely life
but the higher life； and that in the origin of society utility is
not the sole motive； but that there is something spiritual in it
if； at least； 'spiritual' will bring out the meaning of that
complex expression ＇Greek text which cannot be reproduced＇。
Otherwise； the whole account in the REPUBLIC of primitive man will
always remain as a warning against the intrusion of A PRIORI
speculations in the domain appropriate to induction。
Now； Aristotle's theory of the origin of society； like his
philosophy of ethics； rests ultimately on the principle of final
causes； not in the theological meaning of an aim or tendency
imposed from without； but in the scientific sense of function
corresponding to organ。 'Nature maketh no thing in vain' is the
text of Aristotle in this as in other inquiries。 Man being the
only animal possessed of the power of rational speech is； he
asserts； by nature intended to be social； more so than the bee or
any other gregarious animal。
He is ＇Greek text which cannot be reproduced＇； and the national
tendency towards higher forms of perfection brings the 'armed
savage who used to sell his wife' to the free independence of a
free state； and to the ＇Greek text which cannot be reproduced＇；
which was the test of true citizenship。 The stages passed through
by humanity start with the family first as the ultimate unit。
The conglomeration of families forms a village ruled by that
patriarchal sway which is the oldest form of government in the
world； as is shown by the fact that all men count it to be the
constitution of heaven； and the villages are merged into the state；
and here the progression stops。
For Aristotle； like all Greek thinkers； found his ideal within the
walls of the ＇Greek text which cannot be reproduced＇； yet perhaps
in his remark that a united Greece would rule the world we may
discern some anticipation of that 'federal union of free states
into one consolidated empire' which； more than the ＇Greek text
which cannot be reproduced＇； is to our eyes the ultimately perfect
polity。
How far Aristotle was justified in regarding the family as the
ultimate unit； with the materials afforded to him by Greek
literature； I have already noticed。 Besides； Aristotle； I may
remark； had he reflected on the meaning of that Athenian law which；
while prohibiting marriage with a uterine sister； permitted it with
a sister…german； or on the common tradition in Athens that before
the time of Cecrops children bore their mothers' names； or on some
of the Spartan regulations； could hardly have failed to see the
universality of kinsmanship through women in early days； and the
late appearance of monandry。 Yet； while he missed this point； in
common； it must be acknowledged； with many modern writers； such as
Sir Henry Maine； it is essentially as an explorer of inductive
instances that we recognise his improvement on Plato。 The treatise
＇Greek text which cannot be reproduced＇； did it remain to us in its
entirety； would have been one of the most valuable landmarks in the
progress of historical criticism； and the first scientific treatise
on the science of comparative politics。
A few fragments still remain to us； in one of which we find
Aristotle appealing to the authority of an ancient inscription on
the 'Disk of Iphitus；' one of the most celebrated Greek
antiquities； to corroborate his theory of the Lycurgean revival of
the Olympian festival； while his enormous research is evinced in
the elaborate explanation he gives of the historical origin of
proverbs such as ＇Greek text which cannot be reproduced＇； of
religious songs like the ＇Greek text which cannot be reproduced＇ of
the Botticean virgins； or the praises of love and war。
And； finally； it is to be observed how much wider than Plato's his
theory of the origin of society is。 They both rest on a
psychological basis； but Aristotle's recognition of the capacity
for progress and the tendency towards a higher life shows how much
deeper his knowledge of human nature was。
In imitation of these two philosophers； Polybius gives an account
of the origin of society in the opening to his philosophy of
history。 Somewhat in the spirit of Plato； he imagines that after
one of the cyclic deluges which sweep off mankind at stated periods
and annihilate all pre…existing civilisation； the few surviving
members of humanity coalesce for mutual protection； and； as in the
case with ordinary animals； the one most remarkable for physical
strength is elected king。 In a short time； owing to the workings
of sympathy and the desire of approbation； the moral qualities
begin to make their appearance； and intellectual instead of bodily
excellence becomes the qualification for sovereignty。
Other points； as the rise of law and the like； are dwelt on in a
somewhat modern spirit； and although Polybius seems not to have
employed the inductive method of research in this question； or
rather； I should say； of the hierarchical order of the rational
progress of ideas in life； he is not far removed from what the
laborious investigations of modern travellers have given us。
And； indeed； as regards the working of the speculative faculty in
the creation of history； it is in all respects marvellous how that
the most truthful accounts of the passage from barbarism to
civilisation in ancient literature come from the works of poets。
The elaborate researches of Mr。 Tylor and Sir John Lubbock have
done little more than verify the theories put forward in the
PROMETHEUS BOUND and the DE NATURA RERUM； yet neither AEschylus nor
Lucretias followed in the modern path； but rather attained to truth
by a certain almost mystic power of creative imagination； such as
we now seek to banish from science as a dangerous power； though to
it science seems to owe many of its most splendid generalities。 （5）
Leaving then the question of the origin of society as treated by
the ancients； I shall now turn to the other and the more important
question of how far they may he said to have attained to what we
call the philosophy of history。
Now at the outset we must note that； while the conceptions of law
and order have been universally received as the governing
principles of the phenomena of nature in the sphere of physical
science； yet their intrusion into the domain of history and the
life of man has always been met with a strong opposition； on the
ground of the incalculable nature of two great forces acting on
human action； a certain causeless spontaneity which men call free
will； and the extra…natural interference which they attribute as a
constant attribute to God。
Now； that there is a science of the apparently variable phenomena
of history is a conception which WE have perhaps only recently
begun to appreciate； yet； like all other great thoughts； it seems
to have come to the Greek mind spontaneously； through a certain
splendour of imagination； in the morning tide of their
civilisation； before inductive research had armed them with the
instruments of verification。 For I think it is possible to disc