political economy-第27章

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　hands　are　in　such　a　degree　necessary　for　agriculture；　and　manufactures；　or　trade　which　serves　them；　that　the　guardian　professions；　equally　useful　to　society；　are　badly　filled　up　…　it　is　desirable　that　population　continue　to　increase；　that　so　interior　order；　security　of　person　and　property；　may　be　better　protected；　health　better　attended　to；　the　soul　better　nourished；　the　mind　more　enlightened；　and　that　society　may　be　externally　defended　with　sufficient　force；　comprehending　even　the　rapid　recruitment　of　a　sea　or　land　army；　which　consume　population。　　　　　This　population；　indeed；　whenever　it　is　required；　will　quickly　be　replaced。　But　it　is　not　enough　that　it　be　replaced；　if　it　cannot　find　the　niche；　to　which　it　is　destined。　Sometimes　a　fertile　soil　is　in　vain　abundant；　and　remains　uncultivated。　There　is　no　chance　of　the　most　numerous　population　assembled　in　its　neighbourhood　coming　to　profit　by　its　resources。　This　soil　has　become　the　property　of　a　few　families；　it　is　declared　indivisible　and　unalienable；　it　will　always　pass　to　a　single　proprietor；　according　to　the　order　of　primogeniture；　without　the　capacity　either　to　be　subjected　to　an　emphyteutic　lease；　or　burdened　with　a　mortgage。　The　proprietor　has　not　the　capital　necessary　for　its　cultivation；　he　can　give　no　security　to　such　as　have　this　capital；　that　will　engage　them　to　employ　it　in　his　land。　Thus　the　idle　population　of　Rome　in　vain　calls　for　labour；　the　waste　Campagna　di　Roma　in　vain　calls　for　labourers；　the　social　organization　is　bad；　and　so　long　as　this　shall　remain　unchanged；　the　day…labourer　will　perish　from　penury；　on　the　surface　of　fields　which；　for　want　of　culture；　are　returning　to　their　wild　state；　and　the　population；　far　from　increasing；　will　diminish。　　　　　On　the　same　principle　in　manufactures；　the　rich　proprietors　of　Poland　will　in　vain　require　all　the　produce　of　luxury；　the　bad　condition　of　the　roads；　prohibiting　every　distant　transport；　will　in　vain　present　superior　advantages　to　national　industry；　oppression　and　servitude　destroy　all　energy；　all　spirit　of　enterprise　in　the　lower　class。　Elsewhere　ruinous　monopolies；　absurd　privileges；　affrighting　advances；　ignorance；　barbarity；　and　want　of　security；　will　render　the　progress　of　manufactures　impossible；　no　capital　will　be　accumulated　to　animate　them。　In　those　cases；　to　increase　the　population　will　not　increase　industry。　The　births　will　in　vain　be　doubled；　be　quadrupled；　during　a　certain　number　of　years；　they　will　not　afford　an　additional　workman；　they　will　only　be　followed　by　a　proportionably　quicker　mortality。　The　social　organization　is　bad；　so　long　as　this　shall　remain　unchanged；　population　cannot　increase。　　　　　The　guardian　population　is　fed　as　well　as　recruited　by　the　other　classes。　It　is　not　sufficient　that　many　children　are　born；　unless　their　parents　enjoy　a　certain　degree　of　opulence；　they　can　never　bring　them　up　to　the　age　of　men；　the　prince　can　never　make　soldiers　of　them。　In　this　case；　wars　by　land　or　sea　will　devour　the　population；　whilst　they　employ　only　its　superfluity；　the　social　organization　is　good。　　　　　The　population　is　always　measured；　in　the　long　run；　by　the　demand　for　labour。　Wherever　labour　is　required；　and　a　sufficient　wage　offered；　the　workmen　will　arise　to　earn　it。　The　population；　with　its　expansive　force；　will　occupy　the　place　which　is　found　vacant。　Subsistence　will　also　arise　for　the　workmen；　or　in　case　of　need；　be　imported。　The　same　demand　which　calls　a　man　into　existence；　will　likeWise　recompense　the　agricultural　labour　which　provides　him　with　food。　If　the　demand　for　labour　cease；　the　workman　will　perish；　yet　not　without　a　struggle；　in　which　not　he　alone　will　suffer；　but　all　his　brethren　and　his　rivals。　The　subsistence　which　enabled　him　to　live；　and　which　henceforth　he　cannot　pay　for；　and　cannot　demand；　will；　in　its　turn；　cease　to　be　produced。　Thus　national　happiness　rests　on　the　demand　for　labour；　but　on　a　regular　and　perpetual　demand。　For；　on　the　contrary；　a　demand　which　is　intermittent；　after　having　formed　workmen；　condemns　them　to　suffering　and　death：　it　would　be　far　better　if　they　never　had　existed。　　　　　We　have　seen　that　the　demand　for　labour；　the　cause　of　production；　must　be　proportional　to　revenue　which　supports　consumption；　that　this　revenue；　in　its　turn；　originates　in　the　national　wealth；　which　wealth　is　formed　and　augmented　by　labour。　Thus；　in　political　economy；　all　things　are　linked　together；　we　move　constantly　in　a　circle；　since　each　effect　becomes　a　cause　in　its　turn。　Yet　all　things　are　progressive；　provided　that　each　movement　is　adjusted　to　the　rest；　but　all　stops；　all　retrogrades；　whenever　one　of　the　movements　which　ought　to　be　combined　is　disordered。　According　to　the　natural　march　of　things；　an　augmentation　of　wealth　will　produce　an　augmentation　of　revenue；　from　this　will　arise　an　increase　of　consumption；　next　an　increase　of　labour　for　reproduction；　and　therewith　of　population；　and；　finally；　this　new　labour　will；　in　its　turn；　increase　the　national　wealth。　But　if；　by　unreasonable　measures；　any　one　of　those　operations　is　hastened　without　regard　to　all　the　rest；　the　whole　system　is　deranged；　and　the　poor　are　weighed　down　with　suffering；　instead　of　the　happiness　which　was　anticipated　for　them。　　　　　The　object　of　society　is　not　fulfilled；　so　long　as　the　country　occupied　by　this　society；　presents　means　of　supporting　a　new　population；　of　enabling　it　to　live　in　happiness　and　abundance；　whilst　yet　those　means　are　not　resorted　to。　The　multiplication　of　happiness　over　the　earth；　is　the　object　of　Providence；　it　is　stamped　in　all　his　works；　and　the　duty　of　men　in　their　human　society　is　to　co…operate　in　it。　　　　　The　government　which；　by　oppression　of　its　subjects；　by　its　contempt　for　justice　and　order；　by　the　shackles　it　puts　on　agriculture　and　industry；　condemns　fertile　counties　to　be　deserts；　sins　not　against　its　own　subjects　alone；　its　tyranny　is　a　crime　against　human　society；　on　the　whole　of　which　it　inflicts　suffering；　it　weakens　its　rights　over　the　country　occupied　by　it；　and　as　it　troubles　the　enjoyments　of　all　other　states；　it　gives　to　all　others　the　right　of　controlling　it。　All　men　are　mutually　necessary　to　each　other。　Europe　has　a　double　need　of　the　subsistence　which　it　might　procure　from　Barbary；　if　this　magnificent　shore　of　Africa　were　given　back　to　civilization；　and　from　the　consumers　we　should　soon　find　there。　The　institution　of　property　is　the　result　of　social　conventions。　In　a　society　subjected　to　laws　and　a　regulating　government；　the　interest　of　each　may　be　implicitly　relied　on　for　producing　the　advantage　of　all；　because　the　aberrations　of　this　private　interest　are；　in　every　case　of　need；　limited　by　public　authority。　But；　in　the　great　human　society　formed　among　independent　nations；　there　is　no　law　or　general　government　to　repress　the　passions　of　each　sovereign：　besides；　the　interest　of　those　sovereigns　is　not　necessarily　conformable　to　that　of　their　subjects；　or；　to　speak　more　correctly；　the　one　is　contrary　to　the　other；　whenever　the　object　of　the　rulers　is　to　maintain　their　tyranny。　Thus　respect　for　the　pretended　right　of　properly　claimed　by　each　government　over　its　territory；　is　not　referrible　to　the　right　of　private　property；　and；　besides；　it　cannot　be　reciprocal。　The　same　circumstances　which　cause　a　tyrannical　government　to　impede　its　own　civilization；　render　it　equally　incapable　of　respecting　that　of　its　neighbours；　and　submitting　to　the　laws　of　nations。　　　　　But　whilst　more　than　three　quarters　of　the　habitable　globe　are；　by　the　faults　of　their　governments；　deprived　of　the　inhabitants　they　should　support；　we；　at　the　present　day；　in　almost　the　whole　of　Europe；　experience　the　opposite　calamity；　that　of　not　being　able　to　maintain　a　superabundant　population；　which　surpasses　the　proportion　of　labour　required；　and　which；　before　dying　of　poverty；　will　diffuse　its　sufferings　over　the　whole　class　of　such　as　live　by　the　labour　of　their　hands。　For　our　part；　we　owe　this　calamity　to　the　imprudent　zeal　of　our　governments。　With　us；　religious　instruction；　legislation；　social　organization；　every　thing　has　tended　to　produce　a　population；　the　existence　of　which　was　not　provided　for　beforehand。　The　labour　was　not　adjusted　to　the　number　of　men；　and；　frequently；　the　same　zeal　with　which　it　was　attempted　to　multiply　the　number　of　births；　was　afterwards　employed；　in　all　arts；　to　diminish　the　required　number　of　hands。　The　proportion　which　should　subsist　in　the　progress　of　the　different　departments　of　society　has　been　broken；　and　the　suffering　has　become　universal。　　　　　Mr　Malthus；　the　first　writer　who　awakened　public　attention　to　this　calamity　under　which　nations　have　long　suffered；　without　knowing　it；　whilst　he　gave　an　alarm　to　legislators；　did　not　reach　the　true　principles　which　he　seemed　on　the　road　to　find。　On　reading　his　writings；　one　is　stuck　at　once　with　an　essential　error　in　his　reasoning；　and　with　the　importance　of　the　facts　to　which　he　appeals。　Such　confusion；　in　a　matter　to　which　the　happiness　of　man　is　attached；　may　produce　the　most　fatal　consequences。　By　rigorously　applying　principles　deficient　in　accuracy；　the　most　grievous　errors　may　be　committed；　and　if；　on　the　other　hand；　the　error　is　discovered；　there　is　a　risk　of　simultaneously　rejecting　both　the　observations　and　the　precepts。　　　　　Mr