按键盘上方向键 ← 或 → 可快速上下翻页，按键盘上的 Enter 键可回到本书目录页，按键盘上方向键 ↑ 可回到本页顶部！
————未阅读完？加入书签已便下次继续阅读！
this form of construction owing to the want of case endings。 For the same
reason there cannot be an equal variety in the order of words or an equal
nicety of emphasis in English as in Greek。
（2） The formation of the sentence and of the paragraph greatly differs in
Greek and English。 The lines by which they are divided are generally much
more marked in modern languages than in ancient。 Both sentences and
paragraphs are more precise and definitethey do not run into one another。
They are also more regularly developed from within。 The sentence marks
another step in an argument or a narrative or a statement； in reading a
paragraph we silently turn over the page and arrive at some new view or
aspect of the subject。 Whereas in Plato we are not always certain where a
sentence begins and ends； and paragraphs are few and far between。 The
language is distributed in a different way； and less articulated than in
English。 For it was long before the true use of the period was attained by
the classical writers both in poetry or prose； it was （Greek）。 The balance
of sentences and the introduction of paragraphs at suitable intervals must
not be neglected if the harmony of the English language is to be preserved。
And still a caution has to be added on the other side； that we must avoid
giving it a numerical or mechanical character。
（3） This； however； is not one of the greatest difficulties of the
translator； much greater is that which arises from the restriction of the
use of the genders。 Men and women in English are masculine and feminine；
and there is a similar distinction of sex in the words denoting animals；
but all things else； whether outward objects or abstract ideas； are
relegated to the class of neuters。 Hardly in some flight of poetry do we
ever endue any of them with the characteristics of a sentient being； and
then only by speaking of them in the feminine gender。 The virtues may be
pictured in female forms； but they are not so described in language； a ship
is humorously supposed to be the sailor's bride； more doubtful are the
personifications of church and country as females。 Now the genius of the
Greek language is the opposite of this。 The same tendency to
personification which is seen in the Greek mythology is common also in the
language； and genders are attributed to things as well as persons according
to their various degrees of strength and weakness； or from fanciful
resemblances to the male or female form； or some analogy too subtle to be
discovered。 When the gender of any object was once fixed； a similar gender
was naturally assigned to similar objects； or to words of similar
formation。 This use of genders in the denotation of objects or ideas not
only affects the words to which genders are attributed； but the words with
which they are construed or connected； and passes into the general
character of the style。 Hence arises a difficulty in translating Greek
into English which cannot altogether be overcome。 Shall we speak of the
soul and its qualities； of virtue； power； wisdom； and the like； as feminine
or neuter？ The usage of the English language does not admit of the former；
and yet the life and beauty of the style are impaired by the latter。 Often
the translator will have recourse to the repetition of the word； or to the
ambiguous 'they；' 'their；' etc。； for fear of spoiling the effect of the
sentence by introducing 'it。' Collective nouns in Greek and English create
a similar but lesser awkwardness。
（4） To use of relation is far more extended in Greek than in English。
Partly the greater variety of genders and cases makes the connexion of
relative and antecedent less ambiguous： partly also the greater number of
demonstrative and relative pronouns； and the use of the article； make the
correlation of ideas simpler and more natural。 The Greek appears to have
had an ear or intelligence for a long and complicated sentence which is
rarely to be found in modern nations； and in order to bring the Greek down
to the level of the modern； we must break up the long sentence into two or
more short ones。 Neither is the same precision required in Greek as in
Latin or English； nor in earlier Greek as in later； there was nothing
shocking to the contemporary of Thucydides and Plato in anacolutha and
repetitions。 In such cases the genius of the English language requires
that the translation should be more intelligible than the Greek。 The want
of more distinctions between the demonstrative pronouns is also greatly
felt。 Two genitives dependent on one another； unless familiarised by
idiom； have an awkward effect in English。 Frequently the noun has to take
the place of the pronoun。 'This' and 'that' are found repeating themselves
to weariness in the rough draft of a translation。 As in the previous case；
while the feeling of the modern language is more opposed to tautology；
there is also a greater difficulty in avoiding it。
（5） Though no precise rule can be laid down about the repetition of words；
there seems to be a kind of impertinence in presenting to the reader the
same thought in the same words； repeated twice over in the same passage
without any new aspect or modification of it。 And the evasion of
tautologythat is； the substitution of one word of precisely the same
meaning for anotheris resented by us equally with the repetition of
words。 Yet on the other hand the least difference of meaning or the least
change of form from a substantive to an adjective； or from a participle to
a verb； will often remedy the unpleasant effect。 Rarely and only for the
sake of emphasis or clearness can we allow an important word to be used
twice over in two successive sentences or even in the same paragraph。 The
particles and pronouns； as they are of most frequent occurrence； are also
the most troublesome。 Strictly speaking； except a few of the commonest of
them； 'and；' 'the；' etc。； they ought not to occur twice in the same
sentence。 But the Greek has no such precise rules； and hence any literal
translation of a Greek author is full of tautology。 The tendency of modern
languages is to become more correct as well as more perspicuous than
ancient。 And； therefore； while the English translator is limited in the
power of expressing relation or connexion； by the law of his own language
increased precision and also increased clearness are required of him。 The
familiar use of logic； and the progress of science； have in these two
respects raised the standard。 But modern languages； while they have become
more exacting in their demands； are in many ways not so well furnished with
powers of expression as the ancient classical ones。
Such are a few of the difficulties which have to be overcome in the work of
translation； and we are far from having exhausted the list。 （6） The
excellence of a translation will consist； not merely in the faithful
rendering of words； or in the composition of a sentence only； or yet of a
single paragraph； but in the colour and style of the whole work。
Equability of tone is best attained by the exclusive use of familiar and
idiomatic words。 But great care must be taken； for an idiomatic phrase； if
an exception to the general style； is of itself a disturbing element。 No
word； however expressive and exact； should be employed； which makes the
reader stop to think； or unduly attracts attention by difficulty and
peculiarity； or disturbs the effect of the surrounding language。 In
general the style of one author is not appropriate to another； as in
society； so in letters； we expect every man to have 'a good coat of his
own；' and not to dress himself out in the rags of another。 （a） Archaic
expressions are therefore to be avoided。 Equivalents may be occasionally
drawn from Shakspere； who is the common property of us all； but they must
be used sparingly。 For； like some other men of genius of the Elizabethan
and Jacobean age； he outdid the capabilities of the language； and many of
the expressions which he introduced have been laid aside and have dropped
out of use。 （b） A similar principle should be observed in the employment
of Scripture。 Having a greater force and beauty than other language； and a
religious association； it disturbs the even flow of the style。 It may be
used to reproduce in the translation the quaint effect of some antique
phrase in the original； but rarely； and when adopted； it should have a
certain freshness and a suitable 'entourage。' It is strange to obse