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he effects of the crucifixion may be found in Salvador's 〃Jesus…Christ et sa Doctrine〃； but； as Zeller has shown； the theory is utterly unsatisfactory。 The natural return of Jesus to his disciples never could have given rise to the notion of his resurrection； since the natural explanation would have been the more obvious one； besides which； if we were to adopt this hypothesis； we should be obliged to account for the fact that the historic career of Jesus ends with the crucifixion。 The most probable explanation； on the whole； is the one suggested by the accounts in the gospels； that the dogma of the resurrection is due originally to the excited imagination of Mary of Magdala。＇23＇ The testimony of Paul may also be cited in favour of this view； since he always alludes to earlier Christophanies in just the same language which he uses in describing his own vision on the road to Damascus。
＇23＇ See Taine； De l'Intelligence； II。 192。
But the question as to how the belief in the resurrection of Jesus originated is of less importance than the question as to how it should have produced the effect that it did。 The dogma of the resurrection has； until recent times； been so rarely treated from the historical point of view； that the student of history at first finds some difficulty in thoroughly realizing its import to the minds of those who first proclaimed it。 We cannot hope to understand it without bearing in mind the theories of the Jews and early Christians concerning the structure of the world and the cosmic location of departed souls。 Since the time of Copernicus modern Christians no longer attempt to locate heaven and hell； they are conceived merely as mysterious places remote from the earth。 The theological universe no longer corresponds to that which physical science presents for our contemplation。 It was quite different with the Jew。 His conception of the abode of Jehovah and the angels； and of departed souls； was exceedingly simple and definite。 In the Jewish theory the universe is like a sort of three…story house。 The flat earth rests upon the waters； and under the earth's surface is the land of graves； called Sheol； where after death the souls of all men go； the righteous as well as the wicked； for the Jew had not arrived at the doctrine of heaven and hell。 The Hebrew Sheol corresponds strictly to the Greek Hades； before the notions of Elysium and Tartarus were added to it；a land peopled with flitting shadows； suffering no torment； but experiencing no pleasure； like those whom Dante met in one of the upper circles of his Inferno。 Sheol is the first story of the cosmic house； the earth is the second。 Above the earth is the firmament or sky； which； according to the book of Genesis （chap。 i。 v。 6； Hebrew text）； is a vast plate hammered out by the gods； and supports a great ocean like that upon which the earth rests。 Rain is caused by the opening of little windows or trap…doors in the firmament； through which pours the water of this upper ocean。 Upon this water rests the land of heaven； where Jehovah reigns； surrounded by hosts of angels。 To this blessed land two only of the human race had ever been admitted；Enoch and Elijah； the latter of whom had ascended in a chariot of fire； and was destined to return to earth as the herald and forerunner of the Messiah。 Heaven forms the third story of the cosmic house。 Between the firmament and the earth is the air； which is the habitation of evil demons ruled by Satan； the 〃prince of the powers of the air。〃
Such was the cosmology of the ancient Jew； and his theology was equally simple。 Sheol was the destined abode of all men after death； and no theory of moral retribution was attached to the conception。 The rewards and punishments known to the authors of the Pentateuch and the early Psalms are all earthly rewards and punishments。 But in course of time the prosperity of the wicked and the misfortunes of the good man furnished a troublesome problem for the Jewish thinker； and after the Babylonish Captivity； we find the doctrine of a resurrection from Sheol devised in order to meet this case。 According to this doctrinewhich was borrowed from the Zarathustrian theology of Persiathe Messiah on his arrival was to free from Sheol all the souls of the righteous； causing them to ascend reinvested in their bodies to a renewed and beautiful earth； while on the other hand the wicked were to be punished with tortures like those of the valley of Hinnom； or were to be immersed in liquid brimstone； like that which had rained upon Sodom and Gomorrah。 Here we get the first announcement of a future state of retribution。 The doctrine was peculiarly Pharisaic； and the Sadducees； who were strict adherents to the letter of Mosaism； rejected it to the last。 By degrees this doctrine became coupled with the Messianic theories of the Pharisees。 The loss of Jewish independence under the dominion of Persians； Macedonians； and Romans； caused the people to look ever more earnestly toward the expected time when the Messiah should appear in Jerusalem to deliver them from their oppressors。 The moral doctrines of the Psalms and earlier prophets assumed an increasingly political aspect。 The Jews were the righteous 〃under a cloud；〃 whose sufferings were symbolically depicted by the younger Isaiah as the afflictions of the 〃servant of Jehovah〃； while on the other hand； the 〃wicked〃 were the Gentile oppressors of the holy people。 Accordingly the Messiah； on his arrival； was to sit in judgment in the valley of Jehoshaphat； rectifying the wrongs of his chosen ones； condemning the Gentile tyrants to the torments of Gehenna； and raising from Sheol all those Jews who had lived and died during the evil times before his coming。 These were to find in the Messianic kingdom the compensation for the ills which they had suffered in their first earthly existence。 Such are the main outlines of the theory found in the Book of Enoch； written about B。 C。 100； and it is adopted in the Johannine Apocalypse； with little variation； save in the recognition of Jesus as the Messiah； and in the transferrence to his second coming of all these wonderful proceedings。 The manner of the Messiah's coming had been variously imagined。 According to an earlier view； he was to enter Jerusalem as a King of the house of David； and therefore of human lineage。 According to a later view； presented in the Book of Daniel； he was to descend from the sky； and appear among the clouds。 Both these views were adopted by the disciples of Jesus； who harmonized them by referring the one to his first and the other to his second appearance。
Now to the imaginations of these earliest disciples the belief in the resurrection of Jesus presented itself as a needful guarantee of his Messiahship。 Their faith； which must have been shaken by his execution and descent into Sheol； received welcome confirmation by the springing up of the belief that he had been again seen upon the face of the earth。 Applying the imagery of Daniel； it became a logical conclusion that he must have ascended into the sky； whence he might shortly be expected to make his appearance； to enact the scenes foretold in prophecy。 That such was the actual process of inference is shown by the legend of the Ascension in the first chapter of the 〃Acts；〃 and especially by the words； 〃This Jesus who hath been taken up from you into heaven； will come in the same manner in which ye beheld him going into heaven。〃 In the Apocalypse； written A。 D。 68； just after the death of Nero； this second coming is described as something immediately to happen； and the colours in which it is depicted show how closely allied were the Johannine notions to those of the Pharisees。 The glories of the New Jerusalem are to be reserved for Jews； while for the Roman tyrants of Judaea is reserved a fearful retribution。 They are to be trodden underfoot by the Messiah； like grapes in a wine…press； until the gushing blood shall rise to the height of the horse's bridle。
In the writings of Paul the dogma of the resurrection assumes a very different aspect。 Though Paul； like the older apostles； held that Jesus； as the Messiah； was to return to the earth within a few years； yet to his catholic mind this anticipated event had become divested of its narrow Jewish significance。 In the eyes of Paul； the religion preached by Jesus was an abrogation of Mosaism； and the truths contained in it were a free gift to the Gentile as well as to the Jewish world。 According to Paul； death came into the world as a punishment for the sin of Adam。 By this he meant that； had it not been for the original transgression； all men escaping death would either have remained upon earth or have been conveyed to heaven； like Enoch and Elijah； in incorruptible bodies。 But in reality as a penance for disobedience； all men； with these two exceptions； had suffered death； and been exiled to the gloomy caverns of Sheol。 The Mosaic ritual was powerless to free men from this repulsive doom； but it had nevertheless served a good purpose in keeping men's minds directed toward holiness； preparing them； as a schoolmaster would prepare his pupils； to receive the vitalizing truths of Christ。 Now； at last； the Messiah or Christ had come as a second Adam； and being without sin had been raised by Jehovah o