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the Messiah or Christ had come as a second Adam； and being without sin had been raised by Jehovah out of Sheol and taken up into heaven； as testimony to men that the power of sin and death was at last defeated。 The way henceforth to avoid death and escape the exile to Sheol was to live spiritually like Jesus； and with him to be dead to sensual requirements。 Faith； in Paul's apprehension； was not an intellectual assent to definitely prescribed dogmas； but； as Matthew Arnold has well pointed out； it was an emotional striving after righteousness； a developing consciousness of God in the soul； such as Jesus had possessed； or； in Paul's phraseology； a subjugation of the flesh by the spirit。 All those who should thus seek spiritual perfection should escape the original curse。 The Messiah was destined to return to the earth to establish the reign of spiritual holiness； probably during Paul's own lifetime （1 Cor。 xv。 51）。 Then the true followers of Jesus should be clothed in ethereal bodies； free from the imperfections of 〃the flesh；〃 and should ascend to heaven without suffering death； while the righteous dead should at the same time be released from Sheol； even as Jesus himself had been released。
To the doctrine of the resurrection； in which ethical and speculative elements are thus happily blended by Paul； the new religion doubtless owed in great part its rapid success。 Into an account of the causes which favoured the spreading of Christianity； it is not our purpose to enter at present。 But we may note that the local religions of the ancient pagan world had partly destroyed each other by mutual intermingling； and had lost their hold upon people from the circumstance that their ethical teaching no longer corresponded to the advanced ethical feeling of the age。 Polytheism； in short； was outgrown。 It was outgrown both intellectually and morally。 People were ceasing to believe in its doctrines； and were ceasing to respect its precepts。 The learned were taking refuge in philosophy； the ignorant in mystical superstitions imported from Asia。 The commanding ethical motive of ancient republican times had been patriotism；devotion to the interests of the community。 But Roman dominion had destroyed patriotism as a guiding principle of life； and thus in every way the minds of men were left in a sceptical； unsatisfied state；craving after a new theory of life； and craving after a new stimulus to right action。 Obviously the only theology which could now be satisfactory to philosophy or to common…sense was some form of monotheism；some system of doctrines which should represent all men as spiritually subjected to the will of a single God； just as they were subjected to the temporal authority of the Emperor。 And similarly the only system of ethics which could have a chance of prevailing must be some system which should clearly prescribe the mutual duties of all men without distinction of race or locality。 Thus the spiritual morality of Jesus； and his conception of God as a father and of all men as brothers； appeared at once to meet the ethical and speculative demands of the time。
Yet whatever effect these teachings might have produced； if unaided by further doctrinal elaboration； was enhanced myriadfold by the elaboration which they received at the hands of Paul。 Philosophic Stoics and Epicureans had arrived at the conception of the brotherhood of men； and the Greek hymn of Kleanthes had exhibited a deep spiritual sense of the fatherhood of God。 The originality of Christianity lay not so much in its enunciation of new ethical precepts as in the fact that it furnished a new ethical sanction；a commanding incentive to holiness of living。 That it might accomplish this result； it was absolutely necessary that it should begin by discarding both the ritualism and the narrow theories of Judaism。 The mere desire for a monotheistic creed had led many pagans； in Paul's time； to embrace Judaism； in spite of its requirements； which to Romans and Greeks were meaningless； and often disgusting； but such conversions could never have been numerous。 Judaism could never have conquered the Roman world； nor is it likely that the Judaical Christianity of Peter； James； and John would have been any more successful。 The doctrine of the resurrection； in particular； was not likely to prove attractive when accompanied by the picture of the Messiah treading the Gentiles in the wine…press of his righteous indignation。 But here Paul showed his profound originality The condemnation of Jewish formalism which Jesus had pronounced； Paul turned against the older apostles； who insisted upon circumcision。 With marvellous flexibility of mind； Paul placed circumcision and the Mosaic injunctions about meats upon a level with the ritual observances of pagan nations； allowing each feeble brother to perform such works as might tickle his fancy； but bidding all take heed that salvation was not to be obtained after any such mechanical method； but only by devoting the whole soul to righteousness； after the example of Jesus。
This was the negative part of Paul's work。 This was the knocking down of the barriers which had kept men； and would always have kept them； from entering into the kingdom of heaven。 But the positive part of Paul's work is contained in his theory of the salvation of men from death through the second Adam； whom Jehovah rescued from Sheol for his sinlessness。 The resurrection of Jesus was the visible token of the escape from death which might be achieved by all men who； with God's aid； should succeed in freeing themselves from the burden of sin which had encumbered all the children of Adam。 The end of the world was at hand； and they who would live with Christ must figuratively die with Christ； must become dead to sin。 Thus to the pure and spiritual ethics contained in the teachings of Jesus； Paul added an incalculably powerful incentive to right action； and a theory of life calculated to satisfy the speculative necessities of the pagan or Gentile world。 To the educated and sceptical Athenian； as to the critical scholar of modern times； the physical resurrection of Jesus from the grave； and his ascent through the vaulted floor of heaven； might seem foolishness or naivete。 But to the average Greek or Roman the conception presented no serious difficulty。 The cosmical theories upon which the conception was founded were essentially the same among Jews and Gentiles； and indeed were but little modified until the establishment of the Copernican astronomy。 The doctrine of the Messiah's second coming was also received without opposition； and for about a century men lived in continual anticipation of that event； until hope long deferred produced its usual results； the writings in which that event was predicted were gradually explained away； ignored； or stigmatized as uncanonical； and the Church ended by condemning as a heresy the very doctrine which Paul and the Judaizing apostles； who agreed in little else； had alike made the basis of their speculative teachings。 Nevertheless； by the dint of allegorical interpretation； the belief has maintained an obscure existence even down to the present time； the Antiochus of the Book of Daniel and the Nero of the Apocalypse having given place to the Roman Pontiff or to the Emperor of the French。
But as the millenarism of the primitive Church gradually died out during the second century； the essential principles involved in it lost none of their hold on men's minds。 As the generation contemporary with Paul died away and was gathered into Sheol； it became apparent that the original theory must be somewhat modified； and to this question the author of the second epistle to the Thessalonians addresses himself。 Instead of literal preservation from death； the doctrine of a resurrection from the grave was gradually extended to the case of the new believers； who were to share in the same glorious revival with the righteous of ancient times。 And thus by slow degrees the victory over death； of which the resurrection of Jesus was a symbol and a witness； became metamorphosed into the comparatively modern doctrine of the rest of the saints in heaven； while the banishment of the unrighteous to Sheol was made still more dreadful by coupling with the vague conception of a gloomy subterranean cavern the horrible imagery of the lake of fire and brimstone borrowed from the apocalyptic descriptions of Gehenna。 But in this modification of the original theory； the fundamental idea of a future state of retribution was only the more distinctly emphasized； although； in course of time； the original incentive to righteousness supplied by Paul was more and more subordinated to the comparatively degrading incentive involved in the fear of damnation。 There can hardly be a doubt that the definiteness and vividness of the Pauline theory of a future life contributed very largely to the rapid spread of the Christian religion； nor can it be doubted that to the desire to be holy like Jesus； in order to escape death and live with Jesus； is due the elevating ethical influence which； even in the worst times of ecclesiastic degeneracy； Christianity has never failed to exert。 Doubtless； as Lessing long； ago observed； the notion of future reward and punishment needs to be eliminated in order tha