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ial imagination had spontaneously fashioned him。
Modern psychology has demonstrated that this is the way in which the creative artistic imagination proceeds。 It has proved that a vast portion of all our thinking goes on unconsciously； and that the results may arise into consciousness piecemeal and gradually； checking each other as they come； or that they may come all at once； with all the completeness and definiteness of perceptions presented from without。 The former is the case with the critical； and the latter with the artistic intellect。 And this we recognize imperfectly when we talk of a genius being 〃inspired。〃 All of us probably have these two kinds of imagination to a certain extent。 It is only given to a few supremely endowed persons like Goethe to possess them both to an eminent degree。 Perhaps of no other man can it be said that he was a poet of the first order； and as great a critic as poet。
It is therefore apt to be a barren criticism which studies the works of creative geniuses in order to ascertain what theory lies beneath them。 How many systems of philosophy； how many subtle speculations； have we not seen fathered upon Dante； Cervantes； Shakespeare； and Goethe！ Yet their works are； in a certain sense； greater than any systems。 They partake of the infinite complexity and variety of nature； and no more than nature itself can they be narrowed down to the limits of a precise formula。
Lessing was wont to disclaim the title of poet； but； as Goethe said； his immortal works refute him。 He had not only poetical； but dramatic genius； and his 〃Emilia Galotti〃 has kept the stage until to…day。 Nevertheless； he knew well what he meant when he said that he was more of a critic than a poet。 His genius was mainly of the critical order； and his great work； 〃Nathan the Wise；〃 was certainly constructed rather than created。 It was intended to convey a doctrine； and was carefully shaped for the purpose。 And when we have pronounced it the greatest of all poems that have been written for a set purpose； and admit of being expressed in a definite formula； we have classified it with sufficient accuracy。
For an analysis of the characters in the poem； nothing can be better than the essay by Kuno Fischer； appended to the present volume。 The work of translation has been admirably done； and thanks are due to Miss Frothingham for her reproduction of this beautiful poem。
June； 1868。
VIII。 HISTORICAL DIFFICULTIES。＇29＇
＇29＇ Historical Difficulties and Contested Events。 By Octave Delepierre； LL。 D。； F。 S。 A。； Secretary of Legation to the King of the Belgians。 8vo。 London： Murray。 1868。
History； says Sainte…Beuve； is in great part a set of fables which people agree to believe in。 And； on reading books like the present； one certainly needs a good deal of that discipline acquired by long familiarity with vexed historical questions； in order to check the disposition to accept the great critic's ironical remark in sober earnest。 Much of what is currently accredited as authentic history is in fact a mixture of flattery and calumny； myth and fable。 Yet in this set of fables； whatever may have been the case in past times； people will no longer agree to believe。 During the present century the criticism of recorded events has gone far toward assuming the developed and systematized aspect of a science； and canons of belief have been established。 which it is not safe to disregard。 Great occurrences； such as the Trojan War and the Siege of Thebes； not long ago faithfully described by all historians of Greece； have been found to be part of the common mythical heritage of the Aryan nations。 Achilleus and Helena； Oidipous and Iokasta； Oinone and Paris； have been discovered in India and again in Scandinavia； and so on； until their nonentity has become the legitimate inference from their very ubiquity。 Legislators like Romulus and Numa； inventors like Kadmos； have evaporated into etymologies。 Whole legions of heroes； dynasties of kings； and adulteresses as many as Dante saw borne on the whirlwind； have vanished from the face of history； and terrible has been the havoc in the opening pages of our chronological tables。 Nor is it primitive history alone which has been thus metamorphosed。 Characters unduly exalted or defamed by party spirit are daily being set before us in their true； or at least in a truer； light。 What Mr。 Froude has done for Henry VIII。 we know； and he might have done more if he had not tried to do so much。 Humpbacked Richard turns out to have been one of the handsomest kings that ever sat on the throne of England。 Edward I。； in his dealings with Scotland； is seen to have been scrupulously just； while the dignity of the patriot hero Wallace has been somewhat impaired。 Elizabeth is proved to have befriended the false Mary Stuart much longer than was consistent with her personal safety。 Eloquent Cicero has been held up as an object of contempt； and even weighty Tacitus has been said to owe much of his reputation to his ability to give false testimony with a grave face。 It has lately been suspected that gloomy Tiberius； apart from his gloominess； may have been rather a good fellow； not so licentious as puritanical； not cruel so much as exceptionally merciful；a rare general； a sagacious statesman； and popular to boot with all his subjects save the malignant oligarchy which he consistently snubbed； and which took revenge on him by writing his life。 And； to crown all； even Catiline； abuser of our patience； seducer of vestal nuns； and drinker of children's blood；whose very name suggests murder； incest； and robbery；even Catiline has found an able defender in Professor Beesly。 It is claimed that Catiline was a man of great abilities and average good character； a well…calumniated leader of the Marian party which Caesar afterwards led to victory； and that his famous plot for burning Rome never existed save in the unscrupulous Ciceronian fancy。 And those who think it easy to refute these conclusions of Professor Beesly had better set to work and try it。 Such are a few of the surprising questions opened by recent historical research； and in the face of them the public is quite excusable if it declares itself at a loss what to believe。
These； however； are cases in which criticism has at least made some show of ascertaining the truth and detecting the causes of the prevalent misconception。 That men like Catiline and Tiberius should have had their characters blackened is quite easily explicable。 President Johnson would have little better chance of obtaining justice at the hands of posterity； if the most widely read history of his administration should happen to be written by a radical member of the Rump Congress。 But the cases which Mr。 Delepierre invites us to contemplate are of a different character。 They come neither under the head of myths nor under that of misrepresentations。 Some of them are truly vexed questions which it may perhaps always be impossible satisfactorily to solve。 Others may be dealt with more easily； but afford no clew to the origin of the popularly received error。 Let us briefly examine a few of Mr。 Delepierre's 〃difficulties。〃 And first； because simplest； we will take the case of the Alexandrian Library。
Every one has heard how Amrou； after his conquest of Egypt； sent to Caliph Omar to know what should be done with the Alexandrian Library。 〃If the books agree with the Koran；〃 said the Caliph； 〃they are superfluous； if they contradict it； they are damnable； in either case； destroy them。〃 So the books were taken and used to light the fires which heated water for the baths； and so vast was the number that； used in this way； they lasted six months！ All this happened because John the Grammarian was over…anxious enough to request that the books might be preserved； and thus drew Amrou's attention to them。 Great has been the obloquy poured upon Omar for this piece of vandalism； and loud has been the mourning over the treasures of ancient science and literature supposed to have been irrecoverably lost in this ignominious conflagration Theologians； Catholic and Protestant； have been fond of quoting it as an instance of the hostility of Mahometanism to knowledge； and we have even heard an edifying sermon preached about it。 On seeing the story put to such uses； one feels sometimes like using the ad hominem argument； and quoting the wholesale destruction of pagan libraries under Valens； the burning of books by the Latin stormers of Constantinople； the alleged annihilation of 100；000 volumes by Genoese crusaders at Tripoli； the book…burning exploits of Torquemada； the bonfire of 80；000 valuable Arabic manuscripts； lighted up in the square of Granada by order of Cardinal Ximenes； and the irreparable cremation of Aztec writings by the first Christian bishops of Mexico。 These examples； with perhaps others which do not now occur to us； might be applied in just though ungentle retort by Mahometan doctors。 Yet the most direct rejoinder would probably not occur to them： the Alexandrian Library was NOT destroyed by the orders of Omar； and the whole story is a figment！
The very pithiness of it； so characteristic of the excellent but bigoted Omar； is enough to cast suspicion upon it。 De Quincey tells us that 〃if a saying has a proverbia