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epare for a year of famine； Orissa kept on exporting。 In March； when the alarm was first raised； the southwest monsoon had set in； rendering the harbours inaccessible。 Thus the district was isolated。 It was no longer possible to apply the wholesome policy which was operating throughout the rest of the country。 The doomed population of Orissa； like passengers in a ship without provisions； were called upon to suffer the extremities of famine； and in the course of the spring and summer of 1866； some seven hundred thousand people perished。
January； 1869。
X。 SPAIN AND THE NETHERLANDS。＇31＇
＇31＇ History of the United Netherlands： from the Death of William the Silent to the Twelve Years' Truce； 1609。 By John Lothrop Motley； D。 C。 L。 In four volumes。 Vols。 III。 and IV。 New York。 1868。
Tandem fit surculus arbor： the twig which Mr。 Motley in his earlier volumes has described as slowly putting forth its leaves and rootless； while painfully struggling for existence in a hostile soil； has at last grown into a mighty tree of liberty； drawing sustenance from all lands； and protecting all civilized peoples with its pleasant shade。 We congratulate Mr。 Motley upon the successful completion of the second portion of his great work； and we think that the Netherlanders of our time have reason to be grateful to the writer who has so faithfully and eloquently told the story of their country's fearful struggle against civil and ecclesiastical tyranny； and its manifold contributions to the advancement of European civilization。
Mr。 Motley has been fortunate in his selection of a subject upon which to write。 Probably no century of modern times lends itself to the purposes of the descriptive historian so well as the sixteenth。 While on the one hand the problems which it presents are sufficiently near for us to understand them without too great an effort of the imagination； on the other hand they are sufficiently remote for us to study them without passionate and warping prejudice。 The contest between Catholicism and the reformed religionbetween ecclesiastical autocracy and the right of private investigationhas become a thing of the past； and constitutes a closed chapter in human history。 The epoch which begins where Mr。 Motley's history is designed to closeat the peace of Westphaliais far more complicated。 Since the middle of the seventeenth century a double movement has been going on in religion and philosophy； society and politics；a movement of destruction typified by Voltaire and Rousseau； and a constructive movement represented by Diderot and Lessing。 We are still living in the midst of this great epoch： the questions which it presents are liable to disturb our prejudices as well as to stimulate our reason； the results to which it must sooner or later attain can now be only partially foreseen； and even its present tendencies are generally misunderstood； and in many quarters wholly ignored。 With the sixteenth century； as we have said； the case is far different。 The historical problem is far less complex。 The issues at stake are comparatively simple； and the historian has before him a straightforward story。
From the dramatic； or rather from the epic； point of view； the sixteenth century is pre…eminent。 The essentially transitional character of modern history since the breaking up of the papal and feudal systems is at no period more distinctly marked。 In traversing the sixteenth century we realize that we have fairly got out of one state of things and into another。 At the outset； events like the challenge of Barletta may make us doubt whether we have yet quite left behind the Middle Ages。 The belief in the central position of the earth is still universal； and the belief in its rotundity not yet； until the voyage of Magellan； generally accepted。 We find Englandowing partly to the introduction of gunpowder and the consequent disuse of archery； partly to the results of the recent integration of France under Louis XI。fallen back from the high relative position which it had occupied under the rule of the Plantagenets； and its policy still directed in accordance with reminiscences of Agincourt； and garnet； and Burgundian alliances。 We find France just beginning her ill…fated career of intervention in the affairs of Italy； and Spain； with her Moors finally vanquished and a new world beyond the ocean just added to her domain； rapidly developing into the greatest empire which had been seen since the days of the first Caesars。 But at the close of the century we find feudal life in castles changed into modern life in towns； chivalric defiances exchanged for over…subtle diplomacy； Maurices instead of Bayards； a Henry IV。 instead of a Gaston de Foix。 We find the old theory of man's central position in the universethe foundation of the doctrine of final causes and of the whole theological method of interpreting naturefinally overthrown by Copernicus。 Instead of the circumnavigability of the earth； the discovery of a Northwest passageas instanced by the heroic voyage of Barendz； so nobly described by Mr。 Motleyis now the chief geographical problem。 East India Companies； in place of petty guilds of weavers and bakers； bear witness to the vast commercial progress。 We find England； fresh from her stupendous victory over the whole power of Spain； again in the front rank of nations； France； under the most astute of modern sovereigns； taking her place for a time as the political leader of the civilized world； Spain； with her evil schemes baffled in every quarter； sinking into that terrible death…like lethargy； from which she has hardly yet awakened； and which must needs call forth our pity； though it is but the deserved retribution for her past behaviour。 While the little realm of the Netherlands； filched and cozened from the unfortunate Jacqueline by the 〃good〃 Duke of Burgundy； carried over to Austria as the marriage…portion of Lady Mary； sent down to Spain as the personal inheritance of the 〃prudent〃 Philip； and by him intolerably tormented with an Inquisition； a Blood…Council； and a Duke of Alva； has after a forty years' war of independence taken its position for a time as the greatest of commercial nations； with the most formidable navy and one of the best disciplined armies yet seen upon the earth。
But the central phenomenon of the sixteenth century is the culmination of the Protestant movement in its decisive proclamation by Luther。 For nearly three hundred years already the power of the Church had been declining； and its function as a civilizing agency had been growing more and more obsolete。 The first great blow at its supremacy had been directed with partial success in the thirteenth century by the Emperor Frederick II。 Coincident with this attack from without； we find a reformation begun within； as exemplified in the Dominican and Franciscan movements。 The second great blow was aimed by Philip IV。 of France； and this time it struck with terrible force。 The removal of the Papacy to Avignon； in 1305； was the virtual though unrecognized abdication of its beneficent supremacy。 Bereft of its dignity and independence； from that time forth it ceased to be the defender of national unity against baronial anarchy； of popular rights against monarchical usurpation； and became a formidable instrument of despotism and oppression。 Through the vicissitudes of the great schism in the fourteenth century； and the refractory councils in the fifteenth； its position became rapidly more and more retrograde and demoralized。 And when； in 1530； it joined its forces with those of Charles V。； in crushing the liberties of the worthiest of mediaeval republics； it became evident that the cause of freedom and progress must henceforth be intrusted to some more faithful champion。 The revolt of Northern Europe； led by Luther and Henry VIII。 was but the articulate announcement of this altered state of affairs。 So long as the Roman Church had been felt to be the enemy of tyrannical monarchs and the steadfast friend of the people； its encroachments； as represented by men like Dunstan and Becket； were regarded with popular favour。 The strength of the Church lay ever in its democratic instincts； and when these were found to have abandoned it； the indignant protest of Luther sufficed to tear away half of Europe from its allegiance。
By the end of the sixteenth century； we find the territorial struggle between the Church and the reformed religion substantially decided。 Protestantism and Catholicism occupied then the same respective areas which they now occupy。 Since 1600 there has been no instance of a nation passing from one form of worship to the other； and in all probability there never will be。 Since the wholesale dissolution of religious beliefs wrought in the last century； the whole issue between Romanism and Protestantism； regarded as dogmatic systems； is practically dead。 M。 Renan is giving expression to an almost self…evident truth； when he says that religious development is no longer to proceed by way of sectarian proselytism； but by way of harmonious internal development。 The contest is no longer between one theology and another； but it is between the theological and the scientific methods of interpreting natural phenomena。 The sixteenth century has to us therefore the intere