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of nearly all the villany that had been wrought in Europe for half a century； was yet able to declare upon his death…bed that 〃in all his life he had never consciously done wrong to any one。〃 At a ripe old age he died of a fearful disease。 Under the influence of a typhus fever； supervening upon gout； he had begun to decompose while yet alive。 〃His sufferings；〃 says Mr。 Motley； 〃were horrible； but no saint could have manifested in them more gentle resignation or angelic patience。 He moralized on the condition to which the greatest princes might thus be brought at last by the hand of God； and bade the Prince observe well his father's present condition； in order that when he too should be laid thus low； he might likewise be sustained by a conscience void of offence。〃 What more is needed to complete the disgusting picture？ Philip was fanatical up to the point where fanaticism borders upon hypocrisy。 He was possessed with a 〃great moral idea；〃 the idea of making Catholicism the ruler of the world； that he might be the ruler of Catholicism。 Why； it may be said； shall the charge of fanaticism be allowed to absolve Isabella and extenuate the guilt of Charles； while it only strengthens the case against Philip？ Because Isabella persecuted heretics in order to save their souls from a worse fate； while Philip burnt them in order to get them out of his way。 Isabella would perhaps have gone to the stake herself； if thereby she might have put an end to heresy。 Philip would have seen every soul in Europe consigned to eternal perdition before he would have yielded up an iota of his claims to universal dominion。 He could send Alva to browbeat the Pope； as well as to oppress the Netherlanders。 He could compass the destruction of the orthodox Egmont and Farnese； as well as of the heretical William。 His unctuous piety only adds to the abhorrence with which we regard him； and his humility in face of death is neither better nor worse than the assumed humility which had become second nature to Uriah Heep。 In short； take him for all in all； he was probably the most loathsome character in all European history。 He has frequently been called； by Protestant historians； an incarnate devil； but we do not think that Mephistopheles would acknowledge him。 He should rather be classed among those creatures described by Dante as 〃a Dio spiacenti ed ai nemici sui。〃
The abdication of Charles V。 left Philip ruler over wider dominions than had ever before been brought together under the sway of one man。 In his own right Philip was master not only of Spain； but of the Netherlands； Franche Comte； Lombardy； Naples； and Sicily； with the whole of North and South America； besides which he was married to the Queen of England。 In the course of his reign he became possessed of Portugal； with all its vast domains in the East Indies。 His revenues were greater than those of any other contemporary monarch； his navy was considered invincible； and his army was the best disciplined in Europe。 All these great advantages he was destined to throw to the winds。 In the strife for universal monarchy； in the mad endeavour to subject England； Scotland； and France to his own dominion and the tyranny of the Inquisition； besides re…conquering the Netherlands； all his vast resources were wasted。 The Dutch war alone； like a bottomless pit； absorbed all that he could pour into it。 Long before the war was over； or showed signs of drawing to an end； his revenues were wasted； and his troops in Flanders were mutinous for want of pay。 He had to rely upon energetic viceroys like Farnese and the Spinolas to furnish funds out of their own pockets。 Finally； he was obliged to repudiate all his debts； and when he died the Spanish empire was in such a beggarly condition that it quaked at every approach of a hostile Dutch fleet。 Such a result is not evidence of a statesmanlike ability； but Philip's fanatical selfishness was incompatible with statesmanship。 He never could be made to believe that his projects had suffered defeat。 No sooner had the Invincible Armada been sent to the bottom by the guns of the English fleet and the gales of the German Ocean； than he sent orders to Farnese to invade England at once with the land force under his command！ He thought to obtain Scotland； when； after the death of Mary； it had passed under the undisputed control of the Protestant noblemen。 He dreamed of securing for his family the crown of France； even after Henry； with free consent of the Pope； had made his triumphal entry into Paris。 He asserted complete and entire sovereignty over the Netherlands； even after Prince Maurice had won back from him the last square foot of Dutch territory。 Such obstinacy as this can only be called fatuity。 If Philip had lived in Pagan times； he would doubtless； like Caligula； have demanded recognition of his own divinity。
The miserable condition of the Spanish people under this terrible reign； and the causes of their subsequent degeneracy； have been well treated by Mr。 Motley。 The causes of the failure of Spanish civilization are partly social and partly economical； and they had been operating for eight hundred years when Philip succeeded to the throne。 The Moorish conquest in 711 had practically isolated Spain from the rest of Europe。 In the Crusades she took no part； and reaped none of the signal advantages resulting from that great movement。 Her whole energies were directed toward throwing off the yoke of her civilized but 〃unbelieving〃 oppressors。 For a longer time than has now elapsed since the Norman Conquest of England； the entire Gothic population of Spain was engaged in unceasing religious and patriotic warfare。 The unlimited power thus acquired by an unscrupulous clergy； and the spirit of uncompromising bigotry thus imparted to the whole nation； are in this way readily accounted for。 But in spite of this； the affairs of Spain at the accession of Charles V。 were not in an unpromising condition。 The Spanish Visigoths had been the least barbarous of the Teutonic settlers within the limits of the Empire； their civil institutions were excellent； their cities had obtained municipal liberties at an earlier date than those of England； and their Parliaments indulged in a liberty of speech which would have seemed extravagant even to De Montfort。 So late as the time of Ferdinand； the Spaniards were still justly proud of their freedom； and the chivalrous ambition which inspired the marvellous expedition of Cortes to Mexico； and covered the soil of Italy with Spanish armies； was probably in the main a healthy one。 But the forces of Spanish freedom were united at too late an epoch； in 1492； the power of despotism was already in the ascendant。 In England the case was different。 The barons were enabled to combine and wrest permanent privileges from the crown； at a time when feudalism was strong。 But the Spanish communes waited for combined action until feudalism had become weak； and modern despotism； with its standing armies and its control of the spiritual power； was arrayed in the ranks against them。 The War of the Communes； early in the reign of Charles V。； irrevocably decided the case in favour of despotism； and from that date the internal decline of Spain may be said to have begun。
But the triumphant consolidation of the spiritual and temporal powers of despotism； and the abnormal development of loyalty and bigotry； were not the only evil results of the chronic struggle in which Spain had been engaged。 For many centuries； while Christian Spain had been but a fringe of debatable border…land on the skirts of the Moorish kingdom； perpetual guerilla warfare had rendered consecutive labour difficult or impracticable； and the physical configuration of the country contributed in bringing about this result。 To plunder the Moors across the border was easier than to till the ground at home。 Then as the Spaniards； exemplifying the military superiority of the feudal over the sultanic form of social organization； proceeded steadily to recover dominion over the land； the industrious Moors； instead of migrating backward before the advance of their conquerors； remained at home and submitted to them。 Thus Spanish society became compounded of two distinct castes；the Moorish Spaniards； who were skilled labourers； and the Gothic Spaniards； by whom all labour； crude or skilful； was deemed the stigma of a conquered race； and unworthy the attention of respectable people。 As Mr。 Motley concisely says：
〃The highest industrial and scientific civilization that had been exhibited upon Spanish territory was that of Moors and Jews。 When in the course of time those races had been subjugated； massacred； or driven into exile； not only was Spain deprived of its highest intellectual culture and its most productive labour； but intelligence； science； and industry were accounted degrading； because the mark of inferior and detested peoples。〃
This is the key to the whole subsequent history of Spain。 Bigotry； loyalty； and consecrated idleness are the three factors which have made that great country what it is to…day；the most backward region in Europe。 In view of the circumstances just narrated； it is not surprising to learn that in Philip II。's time a vast portion of the real estate of the country was held by the Church in mor