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hat a statue is intended to imitate a living man； that a picture is designed to represent real persons in real attitudes； or the interior of a house； or a landscape； such as it exists in nature。 And it is no less clear that a novel or drama endeavours to represent with accuracy real characters； actions； and words； giving as precise and faithful an image of them as possible。 And when the imitation is incomplete； we say to the painter； 〃Your people are too largely proportioned； and the colour of your trees is false〃； we tell the sculptor that his leg or arm is incorrectly modelled； and we say to the dramatist； 〃Never has a man felt or thought as your hero is supposed to have felt and thought。〃
This truth； moreover； is seen。 both in the careers of individual artists； and in the general history of art。 According to Taine； the life of an artist may generally be divided into two parts。 In the first period； that of natural growth； he studies nature anxiously and minutely； he keeps the objects themselves before his eyes； and strives to represent them with scrupulous fidelity。 But when the time for mental growth ends； as it does with every man； and the crystallization of ideas and impressions commences； then the mind of the artist is no longer so susceptible to new impressions from without。 He begins to nourish himself from his own substance。 He abandons the living model； and with recipes which he has gathered in the course of his experience； he proceeds to construct a drama or novel； a picture or statue。 Now； the first period； says Taine； is that of genuine art； the second is that of mannerism。 Our author cites the case of Michael Angelo； a man who was one of the most colossal embodiments of physical and mental energy that the world has ever seen。 In Michael Angelo's case； the period of growth； of genuine art； may be said to have lasted until after his sixtieth year。 But look； says Taine； at the works which he executed in his old age； consider the Conversion of St。 Paul； and the Last Judgment； painted when he was nearly seventy。 Even those who are not connoisseurs can see that these frescos are painted by rule； that the artist； having stocked his memory with a certain set of forms； is making use of them to fill out his tableau； that he wantonly multiplies queer attitudes and ingenious foreshortenings； that the lively invention； the grand outburst of feeling； the perfect truth； by which his earlier works are distinguished； have disappeared； and that； if he is still superior to all others； he is nevertheless inferior to himself。 The careers of Scott； of Goethe； and of Voltaire will furnish parallel examples。 In every school of art； too； the flourishing period is followed by one of decline； and in every case the decline is due to a failure to imitate the living models。 In painting； we have the exaggerated foreshorteners and muscle…makers who copied Michael Angelo； the lovers of theatrical decorations who succeeded Titian and Giorgione and the degenerate boudoir…painters who followed Claucle and Poussin。 In literature； we have the versifiers； epigrammatists； and rhetors of the Latin decadence； the sensual and declamatory dramatists who represent the last stages of old English comedy； and the makers of sonnets and madrigals； or conceited euphemists of the Gongora school； in the decline of Italian and Spanish poetry。 Briefly it may be said； that the masters copy nature and the pupils copy the masters。 In this way are explained the constantly recurring phenomena of decline in art； and thus； also； it is seen that art is perfect in proportion as it successfully imitates nature。
But we are not to conclude that absolute imitation is the sole and entire object of art。 Were this the case； the finest works would be those which most minutely correspond to their external prototypes。 In sculpture； a mould taken from the living features is that which gives the most faithful representation of the model； but a well…moulded bust is far from being equal to a good statue。 Photography is in many respects more accurate than painting； but no one would rank a photograph； however exquisitely executed； with an original picture。 And finally； if exact imitation were the supreme object of art； the best tragedy； the best comedy； and the best drama would be a stenographic report of the proceedings in a court of justice； in a family gathering； in a popular meeting； in the Rump Congress。 Even the works of artists are not rated in proportion to their minute exactness。 Neither in painting nor in any other art do we give the precedence to that which deceives the eye simply。 Every one remembers how Zeuxis was said to have painted grapes so faithfully that the birds came and pecked at them； and how； Parrhasios； his rival； surpassed even this feat by painting a curtain so natural in its appearance that Zeuxis asked him to pull it aside and show the picture behind it。 All this is not art； but mere knack and trickery。 Perhaps no painter was ever so minute as Denner。 It used to take him four years to make one portrait。 He would omit nothing；neither the bluish lines made by the veins under the skin； nor the little black points scattered over the nose； nor the bright spots in the eye where neighbouring objects are reflected； the head seems to start out from the canvas； it is so like flesh and blood。 Yet who cares for Denner's portraits？ And who would not give ten times as much for one which Van Dyck or Tintoretto might have painted in a few hours？ So in the churches of Naples and Spain we find statues coloured and draped； saints clothed in real coats； with their skin yellow and bloodless； their hands bleeding； and their feet bruised； and beside them Madonnas in royal habiliments； in gala dresses of lustrous silk； adorned with diadems； precious necklaces； bright ribbons； and elegant laces； with their cheeks rosy； their eyes brilliant； their eyelashes sweeping。 And by this excess of literal imitation； there is awakened a feeling； not of pleasure； but always of repugnance； often of disgust； and sometimes of horror So in literature； the ancient Greek theatre； and the best Spanish and English dramatists； alter on purpose the natural current of human speech； and make their characters talk under all the restraints of rhyme and rhythm。 But we pronounce this departure from literal truth a merit and not a defect。 We consider Goethe's second 〃Iphigenie；〃 written in verse； far preferable to the first one written in prose； nay； it is the rhythm or metre itself which communicates to the work its incomparable beauty。 In a review of Longfellow's 〃Dante；〃 published last year； we argued this very point in one of its special applications； the artist must copy his original； but he must not copy it too literally。
What then must he copy？ He must copy； says Taine； the mutual relations and interdependences of the parts of his model。 And more than this； he must render the essential characteristic of the objectthat characteristic upon which all the minor qualities dependas salient and conspicuous as possible。 He must put into the background the traits which conceal it； and bring into the foreground the traits which manifest it。 If he is sculpturing a group like the Laocoon； he must strike upon the supreme moment； that in which the whole tragedy reveals itself； and he must pass over those insignificant details of position and movement which serve only to distract our attention and weaken our emotions by dividing them。 If he is writing a drama； he must not attempt to give us the complete biography of his character； he must depict only those situations which stand in direct subordination to the grand climax or denoument。 As a final result； therefore。 Taine concludes that a work of art is a concrete representation of the relations existing between the parts of an object； with the intent to bring the essential or dominating character thereof into prominence。
We should overrun our limits if we were to follow out the admirable discussion in which M。 Taine extends this definition to architecture and music。 These closely allied arts are distinguished from poetry； painting； and sculpture； by appealing far less directly to the intelligence； and far more exclusively to the emotions。 Yet these arts likewise aim； by bringing into prominence certain relations of symmetry in form as perceived by the eye； or in aerial vibrations as perceived by the ear； to excite in us the states of feeling with which these species of symmetry are by subtle laws of association connected。 They； too； imitate； not literally； but under the guidance of a predominating sentiment or emotion； relations which really exist among the phenomena of nature。 And here； too； we estimate excellence； not in proportion to the direct； but to the indirect imitation。 A Gothic cathedral is not； as has been supposed； directly imitated from the towering vegetation of Northern forests； but it may well be the expression of the dim sentiment of an unseen； all…pervading Power； generated by centuries of primeval life amid such forests。 So the sounds which in a symphony of Beethoven are woven into a web of such amazing complexity may exist in different combinations in nature； but when a musician steps out of his way to imitate the crowing of cocks or the roar of the temp