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ntury。 Otherwise Gauls Samnites； or Bithynians； as savage as North American Indians； would be sure to encamp upon the blackened ruins of his town。 Moreover； the Greek cities had their quarrels with each other； and their laws of war were very barbarous。 A conquered city was liable to be razed to the ground； its male inhabitants put to the sword； its women sold as slaves。 Under such circumstances； according to Taine's happy expression； a citizen must be a politician and warrior； on pain of death。 And not only fear； but ambition also tended to make him so。 For each city strove to subject or to humiliate its neighbours； to acquire tribute； or to exact homage from its rivals。 Thus the citizen passed his life in the public square； discussing alliances； treaties； and constitutions； hearing speeches； or speaking himself； and finally going aboard of his ship to fight his neighbour Greeks； or to sail against Egypt or Persia。
War （and politics as subsidiary to it） was then the chief pursuit of life。 But as there was no organized industry； so there were no machines of warfare。 All fighting was done hand to hand。 Therefore； the great thing in preparing for war was not to transform the soldiers into precisely…acting automata； as in a modern army； but to make each separate soldier as vigorous and active as possible。 The leading object of Greek education was to make men physically perfect。 In this respect； Sparta may be taken as the typical Greek community； for nowhere else was physical development so entirely made the great end of social life。 In these matters Sparta was always regarded by the other cities as taking the lead；as having attained the ideal after which all alike were striving。 Now Sparta； situated in the midst of a numerous conquered population of Messenians and Helots； was partly a great gymnasium and partly a perpetual camp。 Her citizens were always in training。 The entire social constitution of Sparta was shaped with a view to the breeding and bringing up of a strong and beautiful race。 Feeble or ill…formed infants were put to death。 The age at which citizens might marry was prescribed by law； and the State paired off men and women as the modern breeder pairs off horses； with a sole view to the excellence of the off…spring。 A wife was not a helpmate； but a bearer of athletes。 Women boxed； wrestled； and raced； a circumstance referred to in the following passage of Aristophanes； as rendered by Mr。 Felton：
LYSISTRATA。 Hail！ Lampito； dearest of Lakonian women。 How shines thy beauty； O my sweetest friend！ How fair thy colour； full of life thy frame！ Why； thou couldst choke a bull。
LAMPITO。 Yes； by the Twain； For I do practice the gymnastic art； And； leaping； strike my backbone with my heels。 LYSISTRATA。 In sooth； thy bust is lovely to behold。
The young men lived together； like soldiers in a camp。 They ate out…of…doors； at a public table。 Their fare was as simple as that of a modern university boat…crew before a race。 They slept in the open air； and spent their waking hours in wrestling； boxing； running races； throwing quoits； and engaging in mock battles。 This was the way in which the Spartans lived； and though no other city carried this discipline to such an extent； yet in all a very large portion of the citizen's life was spent in making himself hardy and robust。
The ideal man； in the eyes of a Greek； was； therefore not the contemplative or delicately susceptible thinker but the naked athlete； with firm flesh and swelling muscles。 Most of their barbarian neighbours were ashamed to be seen undressed； but the Greeks seem to have felt little embarrassment in appearing naked in public。 Their gymnastic habits entirely transformed their sense of shame。 Their Olympic and other public games were a triumphant display of naked physical perfection。 Young men of the noblest families and from the farthest Greek colonies came to them； and wrestled and ran； undraped； before countless multitudes of admiring spectators。 Note； too； as significant； that the Greek era began with the Olympic games； and that time was reckoned by the intervals between them； as well as the fact that the grandest lyric poetry of antiquity was written in celebration of these gymnastic contests。 The victor in the foot…race gave his name to the current Olympiad； and on reaching home； was received by his fellow…citizens as if he had been a general returning from a successful campaign。 To be the most beautiful man in Greece was in the eyes of a Greek the height of human felicity； and with the Greeks； beauty necessarily included strength。 So ardently did this gifted people admire corporeal perfection that they actually worshipped it。 According to Herodotos； a young Sicilian was deified on account of his beauty； and after his death altars were raised to him。 The vast intellectual power of Plato and Sokrates did not prevent them from sharing this universal enthusiasm。 Poets like Sophokles； and statesmen like Alexander； thought it not beneath their dignity to engage publicly in gymnastic sports。
Their conceptions of divinity were framed in accordance with these general habits。 Though sometimes； as in the case of Hephaistos； the exigencies of the particular myth required the deity to be physically imperfect； yet ordinarily the Greek god was simply an immortal man； complete in strength and beauty。 The deity was not invested with the human form as a mere symbol。 They could conceive no loftier way of representing him。 The grandest statue； expressing most adequately the calmness of absolutely unfettered strength； might well； in their eyes； be a veritable portrait of divinity。 To a Greek； beauty of form was a consecrated thing。 More than once a culprit got off with his life because it would have been thought sacrilegious to put an end to such a symmetrical creature。 And for a similar reason； the Greeks； though perhaps not more humane than the Europeans of the Middle Ages； rarely allowed the human body to be mutilated or tortured。 The condemned criminal must be marred as little as possible； and he was； therefore； quietly poisoned； instead of being hung； beheaded； or broken on the wheel。
Is not the unapproachable excellence of Greek statuarythat art never since equalled； and most likely； from the absence of the needful social stimulus； destined never to be equalledalready sufficiently explained？ Consider； says our author； the nature of the Greek sculptor's preparation。 These men have observed the human body naked and in movement； in the bath and the gymnasium； in sacred dances and public games。 They have noted those forms and attitudes in which are revealed vigour； health； and activity。 And during three or four hundred years they have thus modified； corrected and developed their notions of corporeal beauty。 There is； therefore； nothing surprising in the fact that Greek sculpture finally arrived at the ideal model； the perfect type； as it was； of the human body。 Our highest notions of physical beauty； down to the present day； have been bequeathed to us by the Greeks。 The earliest modern sculptors who abandoned the bony； hideous； starveling figures of the monkish Middle Ages； learned their first lessons in better things from Greek bas…reliefs。 And if； to…day； forgetting our half…developed bodies； inefficiently nourished； because of our excessive brain…work； and with their muscles weak and flabby from want of strenuous exercise； we wish to contemplate the human form in its grandest perfection； we must go to Hellenic art for our models。
The Greeks were； in the highest sense of the word； an intellectual race； but they never allowed the mind to tyrannize over the body。 Spiritual perfection； accompanied by corporeal feebleness； was the invention of asceticism； and the Greeks were never ascetics。 Diogenes might scorn superfluous luxuries； but if he ever rolled and tumbled his tub about as Rabelais says he did； it is clear that the victory of spirit over body formed no part of his theory of things。 Such an idea would have been incomprehensible to a Greek in Plato's time。 Their consciences were not over active。 They were not burdened with a sense of sinfulness。 Their aspirations were decidedly finite； and they believed in securing the maximum completeness of this terrestrial life。 Consequently they never set the physical below the intellectual。 To return to our author； they never； in their statues； subordinated symmetry to expression； the body to the head。 They were interested not only in the prominence of the brows； the width of the forehead； and the curvature of the lips； but quite as much in the massiveness of the chest； the compactness of the thighs； and the solidity of the arms and legs。 Not only the face； but the whole body； had for them its physiognomy。 They left picturesqueness to the painter； and dramatic fervour to the poet； and keeping strictly before their eyes the narrow but exalted problem of representing the beauty of symmetry； they filled their sanctuaries and public places with those grand motionless people of brass； gold； ivory； copper； and marble； in whom humanity recognizes its highest artistic types。 Statuary was the central art of Greece。 No other art was so popular； or so completely expressed