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pe； like Cicero； Seneca； Epictetus； and Marcus Aurelius。 It is then that we find the idea of social progress first clearly expressed； that we discover some glimmerings of a conscious philanthropy； and that we detect the earliest symptoms of that unhealthy tendency to subordinate too entirely the physical to the moral life； which reached its culmination in the Middle Ages。 In the palmy days of the Athenians it was different。 When we hint that they were not consciously philanthropists； we do not mean that they were not humane； when we accredit them with no idea of progress； we do not forget how much they did to render both the idea and the reality possible； when we say that they had not a distressing sense of spiritual unworthiness； we do not mean that they had no conscience。 We mean that their moral and religious life sat easily on them； like their own graceful drapery；did not gall and worry them； like the hair…cloth garment of the monk。 They were free from that dark conception of a devil which lent terror to life in the Middle Ages； and the morbid self…consciousness which led mediaeval women to immure themselves in convents would have been to an Athenian quite inexplicable。 They had； in short； an open and childlike conception of religion； and； as such； it was a sunny conception。 Any one who will take the trouble to compare an idyl of Theokritos with a modern pastoral； or the poem of Kleanthes with a modern hymn； or the Aphrodite of Melos with a modern Madonna； will realize most effectually what I mean。
And； finally； the religion of the Athenians was in the main symbolized in a fluctuating mythology； and had never been hardened into dogmas。 The Athenian was subject to no priest； nor was he obliged to pin his faith to any formulated creed。 His hospitable polytheism left little room for theological persecution； and none for any heresy short of virtual atheism。 The feverish doubts which rack the modern mind left him undisturbed。 Though he might sink to any depth of scepticism in philosophy； yet the eternal welfare of his soul was not supposed to hang upon the issue of his doubts。 Accordingly Athenian society was not only characterized in the main by freedom of opinion； in spite of the exceptional cases of Anaxagoras and Sokrates； but there was also none of that Gothic gloom with which the deep…seated Christian sense of infinite responsibility for opinion has saddened modern religious life。
In these reflections I have wandered a little way from my principal theme； in order more fully to show why the old Greek life impresses us as so cheerful。 Returning now to the keynote with which we started； let us state succinctly the net result of what has been said about the Athenians。 As a people we have seen that they enjoyed an unparalleled amount of leisure； living through life with but little turmoil and clatter。 Their life was more spontaneous and unrestrained； less rigorously marked out by uncontrollable circumstances； than the life of moderns。 They did not run so much in grooves。 And along with this we have seen reason to believe that they were the most profoundly cultivated of all peoples； that a larger proportion of men lived complete； well…rounded； harmonious lives in ancient Athens than in any other known community。 Keen； nimble…minded； and self…possessed； audacious speculators； but temperate and averse to extravagance； emotionally healthy； and endowed with an unequalled sense of beauty and propriety； how admirable and wonderful they seem when looked at across the gulf of ages intervening；and what a priceless possession to humanity； of what noble augury for the distant future； is the fact that such a society has once existed！
The lesson to be drawn from the study of this antique life will impress itself more deeply upon us after we have briefly contemplated the striking contrast to it which is afforded by the phase of civilization amid which we live to…day。 Ever since Greek civilization was merged in Roman imperialism； there has been a slowly growing tendency toward complexity of social life；toward the widening of sympathies； the multiplying of interests； the increase of the number of things to be done。 Through the later Middle Ages； after Roman civilization had absorbed and disciplined the incoming barbarism which had threatened to destroy it； there was a steadily increasing complication of society； a multiplication of the wants of life； and a consequent enhancement of the difficulty of self…maintenance。 The ultimate causes of this phenomenon lie so far beneath the surface that they could be satisfactorily discussed only in a technical essay on the evolution of society。 It will be enough for us here to observe that the great geographical discoveries of the sixteenth century and the somewhat later achievements of physical science have； during the past two hundred years； aided powerfully in determining the entrance of the Western world upon an industrial epoch；an epoch which has for its final object the complete subjection of the powers of nature to purposes of individual comfort and happiness。 We have now to trace some of the effects of this lately…begun industrial development upon social life and individual culture。 And as we studied the leisureliness of antiquity where its effects were most conspicuous； in the city of Athens； we shall now do well to study the opposite characteristics of modern society where they are most conspicuously exemplified； in our own country。 The attributes of American life which it will be necessary to signalize will be seen to be only the attributes of modern life in their most exaggerated phase。
To begin with； in studying the United States； we are no longer dealing with a single city； or with small groups of cities。 The city as a political unit； in the antique sense； has never existed among us； and indeed can hardly be said now to exist anywhere。 The modern city is hardly more than a great emporium of trade； or a place where large numbers of people find it convenient to live huddled together； not a sacred fatherland to which its inhabitants owe their highest allegiance； and by the requirements of which their political activity is limited。 What strikes us here is that our modern life is diffused or spread out； not concentrated like the ancient civic life。 If the Athenian had been the member of an integral community； comprising all peninsular Greece and the mainland of Asia Minor； he could not have taken life so easily as he did。
Now our country is not only a very large one； but compared to its vast territorial extent it contains a very small population。 If we go on increasing at the present rate； so that a century hence we number four or five hundred millions； our country will be hardly more crowded than China is to…day。 Or if our whole population were now to be brought east of Niagara Falls； and confined on the south by the Potomac； we should still have as much elbow…room as they have in France。 Political economists can show the effects of this high ratio of land to inhabitants； in increasing wages； raising the interest of money； and stimulating production。 We are thus living amid circumstances which are goading the industrial activity characteristic of the last two centuries； and notably of the English race； into an almost feverish energy。 The vast extent of our unwrought territory is constantly draining fresh life from our older districts； to aid in the establishment of new frontier communities of a somewhat lower or less highly organized type。 And these younger communities； daily springing up； are constantly striving to take on the higher structure；to become as highly civilized and to enjoy as many of the prerogatives of civilization as the rest。 All this calls forth an enormous quantity of activity； and causes American life to assume the aspect of a life…and…death struggle for mastery over the material forces of that part of the earth's surface upon which it thrives。
It is thus that we are traversing what may properly be called the BARBAROUS epoch of our history；the epoch at which the predominant intellectual activity is employed in achievements which are mainly of a material character。 Military barbarism； or the inability of communities to live together without frequent warfare； has been nearly outgrown by the whole Western world。 Private wars； long since made everywhere illegal； have nearly ceased； and public wars； once continual； have become infrequent。 But industrial barbarism； by which I mean the inability of a community to direct a portion of its time to purposes of spiritual life； after providing for its physical maintenance；this kind of barbarism the modern world has by no means outgrown。 To…day； the great work of life is to live； while the amount of labour consumed in living has throughout the present century been rapidly increasing。 Nearly the whole of this American community toils from youth to old age in merely procuring the means for satisfying the transient wants of life。 Our time and energies； our spirit and buoyancy； are quite used up in what is called 〃getting on。〃
Another point of difference between the structure of American and of Athenian society must not be left out of the account。 The time has gone by in which the energies of a hundred thousand men and women could be