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ng along the serpentine body of Tiawath； who turns her head to attack him； whilst the god threatens her with a pointed weapon which he carries。 Another； published by the same scholar； shows a deity； whom he regards as being Merodach； driven in a chariot drawn by a winged lion； upon whose shoulders stands a naked goddess； holding thunderbolts in each hand； whom he describes as Zer…pan？tum。 Another cylinder…seal shows the corn…deity； probably Nisaba； seated in flounced robe and horned hat； with corn…stalks springing out from his shoulders； and holding a twofold ear of corn in his hand； whilst an attendant introduces； and another with a threefold ear of corn follows； a man carrying a plough； apparently as an offering。 On another； a beautiful specimen from Assyria； I？tar is shown standing on an Assyrian lion； which turns his head as if to caress her feet。 As goddess of war； she is armed with bow and arrows； and her star is represented upon the crown of her tiara。
On boundary…stones； etc。
On the boundary…stones of Babylonia and the royal monoliths of Assyria the emblems of the gods are nearly always seen。 Most prominent are three horned tiaras； emblematic； probably； of Merodach； Anu； and Bêl （the older）。 A column ending in a ram's head is used for êa or Ae； a crescent for Sin or Nannar； the moon…god； a disc with rays for ？ama？； the sun…god； a thunderbolt for Rimmon or Hadad； the god of thunder； lightning； wind； and storms； a lamp for Nusku； etc。 A bird； perhaps a hawk； stood for Utu…gi？gallu； a deity whose name has been translated 〃the southern sun；〃 and is explained in the bilingual inscriptions as ？ama？； the sun…god； and Nirig； one of the gods of war。 The emblem of Gal…alim； who is identified with the older Bêl； is a snarling dragon's head forming the termination of a pole； and that of Dun…a？aga is a bird's head similarly posed。 On a boundary…stone of the time of Nebuchadnezzar I。； about 1120 B。C。； one of the signs of the gods shows a horse's head in a kind of shrine； probably the emblem of Rimmon's storm…bird； Z？； the Babylonian Pegasus。
Other divine figures。
One of the finest of all the representations of divinities is that of the 〃Sun…god…stone；〃 found by Mr。 Hormuzd Rassam at Abu…habbah （the ancient Sippar）； which was one of the chief seats of his worship。 It represents him； seated in his shrine； holding in his hand a staff and a ring； his usual emblems； typifying his position as judge of the world and his endless course。 The position of Merodach as sun…god is confirmed by the small lapis…lazuli relief found by the German expedition at the mound known as Amran ibn 'Ali； as he also carries a staff and a ring； and his robe is covered with ornamental circles； showing； in all probability； his solar nature。 In the same place another small relief representing Rimmon or Hadad was found。 His robe has discs emblematical of the five planets； and he holds in each hand a thunderbolt； one of which he is about to launch forth。 Merodach is accompanied by a large two…horned dragon； whilst Hadad has a small winged dragon； typifying the swiftness of his course； and another animal； both of which he holds with cords。
CHAPTER V
THE DEMONS： EXORCISMS AND CEREMONIES
Good and evil spirits； gods and demons； were fully believed in by the Babylonians and Assyrians； and many texts referring to them exist。 Naturally it is not in some cases easy to distinguish well between the special functions of these supernatural appearances which they supposed to exist； but their nature is； in most cases； easily ascertained from the inscriptions。
To all appearance； the Babylonians imagined that spirits resided everywhere； and lay in wait to attack mankind； and to each class； apparently； a special province in bringing misfortune； or tormenting； or causing pain and sickness； was assigned。 All the spirits； however； were not evil； even those whose names would suggest that their character was suchthere were good 〃liers in wait；〃 for instance； as well as evil ones； whose attitude towards mankind was beneficent。
The /utukku/。 This was a spirit which was supposed to do the will of Anu； the god of the heavens。 There was the /utukku/ of the plain； the mountains； the sea； and the grave。
The /al？/。 Regarded as the demon of the storm； and possibly； in its origin； the same as the divine bull sent by I？tar to attack Gilgame？； and killed by Enki…du。 It spread itself over a man； overpowering him upon his bed； and attacking his breast。
The /êdimmu/。 This is generally； but wrongly； read /êkimmu/； and translated 〃the seizer；〃 from /êkemu/； 〃to seize。〃 In reality； however； it was an ordinary spirit； and the word is used for the wraiths of the departed。 The 〃evil /êdimmu/〃 was apparently regarded as attacking the middle part of a man。
The /gallu/。 As this word is borrowed from the Sumerian /galla/； which has a dialectic form； /mulla/； it is not improbable that it may be connected with the word /mula/； meaning 〃star；〃 and suggesting something which is visible by the light it givespossibly a will…o'… the…wisp；though others are inclined to regard the word as being connected with /gala/； 〃great。〃 In any case； its meaning seems to have become very similar to 〃evil spirit〃 or 〃devil〃 in general； and is an epithet applied by the Assyrian king A？？ur…bani…apli to Te…umman； the Elamite king against whom he fought。
The /？lu limnu/； 〃evil god；〃 was probably originally one of the deities of Tiawath's brood； upon whom Merodach's redemption had had no effect。
The /rabisu/ is regarded as a spirit which lay in wait to pounce upon his prey。
The /labartu/； in Sumerian /dimme/； was a female demon。 There were seven evil spirits of this kind； who were apparently regarded as being daughters of Anu； the god of the heavens。
The /labasu/； in Sumerian /dimmea/； was apparently a spirit which overthrew； that being the meaning of the root from which the word comes。
The /ahhazu/； in Sumerian /dimme…kur/； was apparently so called as 〃the seizer；〃 that being the meaning indicated by the root。
The /lilu/； in Sumerian /lila/； is generally regarded as 〃the night… monster；〃 the word being referred to the Semitic root /l？l/ or /layl/； whence the Hebrew /layil/； Arabic /layl/； 〃night。〃 Its origin； however； is Sumerian； from /lila/； regarded as meaning 〃mist。〃 To the word /lilu/ the ancient Babylonians formed a feminine； /lil？thu/； which entered the Hebrew language under the form of /lilith/； which was； according to the rabbins； a beautiful woman； who lay in wait for children by night。 The /lilu/ had a companion who is called his handmaid or servant。
The /namtaru/ was apparently the spirit of fate； and therefore of greater importance than those already mentioned。 This being was regarded as the beloved son of Bêl； and offspring of /Ere？…ki…gal/ or Persephone； and he had a spouse named /Hu？…bi…？aga/。 Apparently he executed the instructions given him concerning the fate of men； and could also have power over certain of the gods。
The /？êdu/ were apparently deities in the form of bulls。 They were destructive； of enormous power； and unsparing。 In a good sense the /？êdu/ was a protecting deity； guarding against hostile attacks。 Erech and the temple ê…kura were protected by spirits such as these； and to one of them I？um； 〃the glorious sacrificer；〃 was likened。
The /lamassu/； from the Sumerian /lama/； was similar in character to the /？êdu/； but is thought to have been of the nature of a colossusa winged man…headed bull or lion。 It is these creatures which the kings placed at the sides of the doors of their palaces； to protect the king's footsteps。 In early Babylonian times a god named Lama was one of the most popular deities of the Babylonian pantheon。
A specimen incantation。
Numerous inscriptions； which may be regarded as dating； in their origin； from about the middle of the third millennium before Christ； speak of these supernatural beings； and also of others similar。 One of the most perfect of these inscriptions is a large bilingual tablet of which a duplicate written during the period of the dynasty of Hammurabi （before 2000 B。C。） exists； and which was afterwards provided with a Semitic Babylonian translation。 This inscription refers to the evil god； the evil /utukku/； the /utukku/ of the plain； of the mountain； of the sea； and of the grave； the evil /？êdu/； the glorious /al？/； or divine bull； and the evil unsparing wind。 There was also that which takes the form of a man； the evil face； the evil eye； the evil mouth； the evil tongue； the evil lip； the evil breath； also the afflicting /asakku/ （regarded as the demon of fever）； the /asakku/ which does not leave a man： the afflicting /namtaru/ （fate）； the severe /namtaru/； the /namtaru/ which does not quit a man。 After this are mentioned various diseases； bodily pains； annoyances； such as 〃the old shoe； the broken shoe…lace； the food which afflicts the body of a man； the food which turns in eating； the water which chokes in drinking；〃 etc。 Other things to be exorcised included the spirit of death； people who had died of hunger； thirst； or in other ways； the handmaid of the /lilu/ who had no hus