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Washington's winter quarters at Valley Forge were only twenty miles from Philadelphia； among hills easily defended。 It is matter for wonder that Howe； with an army well equipped； did not make some attempt to destroy the army of Washington which passed the winter so near and in acute distress。 The Pennsylvania Loyalists； with dark days soon to come； were bitter at Howe's inactivity； full of tragic meaning for themselves。 He said that he could achieve nothing permanent by attack。 It may be so； but it is a sound principle in warfare to destroy the enemy when this is possible。 There was a time when in Washington's whole force not more than two thousand men were in a condition to fight。 Congress was responsible for the needs of the army but was now； in sordid inefficiency； cooped up in the little town of York； eighty miles west of Valley Forge； to which it had fled。 There was as yet no real federal union。 The seat of authority was in the State Governments； and we need not wonder that； with the passing of the first burst of devotion which united the colonies in a common cause； Congress declined rapidly in public esteem。 〃What a lot of damned scoundrels we had in that second Congress〃 said； at a later date； Gouverneur Morris of Philadelphia to John Jay of New York； and Jay answered gravely； 〃Yes； we had。〃 The body； so despised in the retrospect； had no real executive government； no organized departments。 Already before Independence was proclaimed there had been talk of a permanent union； but the members of Congress had shown no sense of urgency； and it was not until November 15； 1777； when the British were in Philadelphia and Congress was in exile at York； that Articles of Confederation were adopted。 By the following midsummer many of the States had ratified these articles； but Maryland； the last to assent； did not accept the new union until 1781； so that Congress continued to act for the States without constitutional sanction during the greater part of the war。
The ineptitude of Congress is explained when we recall that it was a revolutionary body which indeed controlled foreign affairs and the issues of war and peace； coined money； and put forth paper money but had no general powers。 Each State had but one vote； and thus a small and sparsely settled State counted for as much as populous Massachusetts or Virginia。 The Congress must deal with each State only as a unit； it could not coerce a State； and it had no authority to tax or to coerce individuals。 The utmost it could do was to appeal to good feeling； and when a State felt that it had a grievance such an appeal was likely to meet with a flaming retort。
Washington maintained towards Congress an attitude of deference and courtesy which it did not always deserve。 The ablest men in the individual States held aloof from Congress。 They felt that they had more dignity and power if they sat in their own legislatures。 The assembly which in the first days had as members men of the type of Washington and Franklin sank into a gathering of second…rate men who were divided into fierce factions。 They debated interminably and did little。 Each member usually felt that he must champion the interests of his own State against the hostility of others。 It was not easy to create a sense of national life。 The union was only a league of friendship。 States which for a century or more had barely acknowledged their dependence upon Great Britain； were chary about coming under the control of a new centralizing authority at Philadelphia。 The new States were sovereign and some of them went so far as to send envoys of their own to negotiate with foreign powers in Europe。 When it was urged that Congress should have the power to raise taxes in the States； there were patriots who asked sternly what the war was about if it was not to vindicate the principle that the people of a State alone should have power of taxation over themselves。 Of New England all the other States were jealous and they particularly disliked that proud and censorious city which already was accused of believing that God had made Boston for Himself and all the rest of the world for Boston。 The religion of New England did not suit the Anglicans of Virginia or the Roman Catholics of Maryland； and there was resentful suspicion of Puritan intolerance。 John Adams said quite openly that there were no religious teachers in Philadelphia to compare with those of Boston and naturally other colonies drew away from the severe and rather acrid righteousness of which he was a type。
Inefficiency meanwhile brought terrible suffering at Valley Forge； and the horrors of that winter remain still vivid in the memory of the American people。 The army marched to Valley Forge on December 17； 1777； and in midwinter everything from houses to entrenchments had still to be created。 At once there was busy activity in cutting down trees for the log huts。 They were built nearly square； sixteen feet by fourteen； in rows； with the door opening on improvised streets。 Since boards were scarce； and it was difficult to make roofs rainproof； Washington tried to stimulate ingenuity by offering a reward of one hundred dollars for an improved method of roofing。 The fireplaces of wood were protected with thick clay。 Firewood was abundant； but； with little food for oxen and horses； men had to turn themselves into draught animals to bring in supplies。
Sometimes the army was for a week without meat。 Many horses died for lack of forage or of proper care； a waste which especially disturbed Washington； a lover of horses。 When quantities of clothing were ready for use； they were not delivered at Valley Forge owing to lack of transport。 Washington expressed his contempt for officers who resigned their commissions in face of these distresses。 No one； he said； ever heard him say a word about resignation。 There were many desertions but； on the whole； he marveled at the patience of his men and that they did not mutiny。 With a certain grim humor they chanted phrases about 〃no pay； no clothes； no provisions； no rum；〃 and sang an ode glorifying war and Washington。 Hundreds of them marched barefoot； their blood staining the snow or the frozen ground while； at the same time； stores of shoes and clothing were lying unused somewhere on the roads to the camp。
Sickness raged in the army。 Few men at Valley Forge； wrote Washington； had more than a sheet； many only part of a sheet； and some nothing at all。 Hospital stores were lacking。 For want of straw and blankets the sick lay perishing on the frozen ground。 When Washington had been at Valley Forge for less than a week； he had to report nearly three thousand men unfit for duty because of their nakedness in the bitter winter。 Then； as always； what we now call the 〃profiteer〃 was holding up supplies for higher prices。 To the British at Philadelphia； because they paid in gold； things were furnished which were denied to Washington at Valley Forge； and he announced that he would hang any one who took provisions to Philadelphia。 To keep his men alive Washington had sometimes to take food by force from the inhabitants and then there was an outcry that this was robbery。 With many sick； his horses so disabled that he could not move his artillery； and his defenses very slight； he could have made only a weak fight had Howe attacked him。 Yet the legislature of Pennsylvania told him that； instead of lying quiet in winter quarters； he ought to be carrying on an active campaign。 In most wars irresponsible men sitting by comfortable firesides are sure they knew best how the thing should be done。
The bleak hillside at Valley Forge was something more than a prison。 Washington's staff was known as his family and his relations with them were cordial and even affectionate。 The young officers faced their hardships cheerily and gave meager dinners to which no one might go if he was so well off as to have trousers without holes。 They talked and sang and jested about their privations。 By this time many of the bad officers； of whom Washington complained earlier； had been weeded out and he was served by a body of devoted men。 There was much good comradeship。 Partnership in suffering tends to draw men together。 In the company which gathered about Washington； two men； mere youths at the time； have a world…wide fame。 The young Alexander Hamilton； barely twenty…one years of age； and widely known already for his political writings； had the rank of lieutenant colonel gained for his services in the fighting about New York。 He was now Washington's confidential secretary； a position in which he soon grew restless。 His ambition was to be one of the great military leaders of the Revolution。 Before the end of the war he had gone back to fighting and he distinguished himself in the last battle of the war at Yorktown。 The other youthful figure was the Marquis de La Fayette。 It is not without significance that a noble square bears his name in the capital named after Washington。 The two men loved each other。 The young French aristocrat； with both a great name and great possessions； was fired in 1776； when only nineteen； with zeal for the American cause。 〃With the welfare of America；〃 he wrote to his wife； 〃is closely linked the welfare of mankind。〃 Idealists in France believed that Ameri