utilitarianism-第4章

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ause；　in　the　first　place；　it　is　unattainable：　and　they　contemptuously　ask；　what　right　hast　thou　to　be　happy？　a　question　which　Mr。　Carlyle　clenches　by　the　addition；　What　right；　a　short　time　ago；　hadst　thou　even　to　be？　Next；　they　say；　that　men　can　do　without　happiness；　that　all　noble　human　beings　have　felt　this；　and　could　not　have　become　noble　but　by　learning　the　lesson　of　Entsagen；　or　renunciation；　which　lesson；　thoroughly　learnt　and　submitted　to；　they　affirm　to　be　the　beginning　and　necessary　condition　of　all　virtue。　　　The　first　of　these　objections　would　go　to　the　root　of　the　matter　were　it　well　founded；　for　if　no　happiness　is　to　be　had　at　all　by　human　beings；　the　attainment　of　it　cannot　be　the　end　of　morality；　or　of　any　rational　conduct。　Though；　even　in　that　case；　something　might　still　be　said　for　the　utilitarian　theory；　since　utility　includes　not　solely　the　pursuit　of　happiness；　but　the　prevention　or　mitigation　of　unhappiness；　and　if　the　former　aim　be　chimerical；　there　will　be　all　the　greater　scope　and　more　imperative　need　for　the　latter；　so　long　at　least　as　mankind　think　fit　to　live；　and　do　not　take　refuge　in　the　simultaneous　act　of　suicide　recommended　under　certain　conditions　by　Novalis。　When；　however；　it　is　thus　positively　asserted　to　be　impossible　that　human　life　should　be　happy；　the　assertion；　if　not　something　like　a　verbal　quibble；　is　at　least　an　exaggeration。　If　by　happiness　be　meant　a　continuity　of　highly　pleasurable　excitement；　it　is　evident　enough　that　this　is　impossible。　A　state　of　exalted　pleasure　lasts　only　moments；　or　in　some　cases；　and　with　some　intermissions；　hours　or　days；　and　is　the　occasional　brilliant　flash　of　enjoyment；　not　its　permanent　and　steady　flame。　Of　this　the　philosophers　who　have　taught　that　happiness　is　the　end　of　life　were　as　fully　aware　as　those　who　taunt　them。　The　happiness　which　they　meant　was　not　a　life　of　rapture；　but　moments　of　such；　in　an　existence　made　up　of　few　and　transitory　pains；　many　and　various　pleasures；　with　a　decided　predominance　of　the　active　over　the　passive；　and　having　as　the　foundation　of　the　whole；　not　to　expect　more　from　life　than　it　is　capable　of　bestowing。　A　life　thus　composed；　to　those　who　have　been　fortunate　enough　to　obtain　it；　has　always　appeared　worthy　of　the　name　of　happiness。　And　such　an　existence　is　even　now　the　lot　of　many；　during　some　considerable　portion　of　their　lives。　The　present　wretched　education；　and　wretched　social　arrangements；　are　the　only　real　hindrance　to　its　being　attainable　by　almost　all。　　　The　objectors　perhaps　may　doubt　whether　human　beings；　if　taught　to　consider　happiness　as　the　end　of　life；　would　be　satisfied　with　such　a　moderate　share　of　it。　But　great　numbers　of　mankind　have　been　satisfied　with　much　less。　The　main　constituents　of　a　satisfied　life　appear　to　be　two；　either　of　which　by　itself　is　often　found　sufficient　for　the　purpose：　tranquillity；　and　excitement。　With　much　tranquillity；　many　find　that　they　can　be　content　with　very　little　pleasure：　with　much　excitement；　many　can　reconcile　themselves　to　a　considerable　quantity　of　pain。　There　is　assuredly　no　inherent　impossibility　in　enabling　even　the　mass　of　mankind　to　unite　both；　since　the　two　are　so　far　from　being　incompatible　that　they　are　in　natural　alliance；　the　prolongation　of　either　being　a　preparation　for；　and　exciting　a　wish　for；　the　other。　It　is　only　those　in　whom　indolence　amounts　to　a　vice；　that　do　not　desire　excitement　after　an　interval　of　repose：　it　is　only　those　in　whom　the　need　of　excitement　is　a　disease；　that　feel　the　tranquillity　which　follows　excitement　dull　and　insipid；　instead　of　pleasurable　in　direct　proportion　to　the　excitement　which　preceded　it。　When　people　who　are　tolerably　fortunate　in　their　outward　lot　do　not　find　in　life　sufficient　enjoyment　to　make　it　valuable　to　them；　the　cause　generally　is；　caring　for　nobody　but　themselves。　To　those　who　have　neither　public　nor　private　affections；　the　excitements　of　life　are　much　curtailed；　and　in　any　case　dwindle　in　value　as　the　time　approaches　when　all　selfish　interests　must　be　terminated　by　death：　while　those　who　leave　after　them　objects　of　personal　affection；　and　especially　those　who　have　also　cultivated　a　fellow…feeling　with　the　collective　interests　of　mankind；　retain　as　lively　an　interest　in　life　on　the　eve　of　death　as　in　the　vigour　of　youth　and　health。　Next　to　selfishness；　the　principal　cause　which　makes　life　unsatisfactory　is　want　of　mental　cultivation。　A　cultivated　mind…　I　do　not　mean　that　of　a　philosopher；　but　any　mind　to　which　the　fountains　of　knowledge　have　been　opened；　and　which　has　been　taught；　in　any　tolerable　degree；　to　exercise　its　faculties…　finds　sources　of　inexhaustible　interest　in　all　that　surrounds　it；　in　the　objects　of　nature；　the　achievements　of　art；　the　imaginations　of　poetry；　the　incidents　of　history；　the　ways　of　mankind；　past　and　present；　and　their　prospects　in　the　future。　It　is　possible；　indeed；　to　become　indifferent　to　all　this；　and　that　too　without　having　exhausted　a　thousandth　part　of　it；　but　only　when　one　has　had　from　the　beginning　no　moral　or　human　interest　in　these　things；　and　has　sought　in　them　only　the　gratification　of　curiosity。　　　Now　there　is　absolutely　no　reason　in　the　nature　of　things　why　an　amount　of　mental　culture　sufficient　to　give　an　intelligent　interest　in　these　objects　of　contemplation；　should　not　be　the　inheritance　of　every　one　born　in　a　civilised　country。　As　little　is　there　an　inherent　necessity　that　any　human　being　should　be　a　selfish　egotist；　devoid　of　every　feeling　or　care　but　those　which　centre　in　his　own　miserable　individuality。　Something　far　superior　to　this　is　sufficiently　common　even　now；　to　give　ample　earnest　of　what　the　human　species　may　be　made。　Genuine　private　affections　and　a　sincere　interest　in　the　public　good；　are　possible；　though　in　unequal　degrees；　to　every　rightly　brought　up　human　being。　In　a　world　in　which　there　is　so　much　to　interest；　so　much　to　enjoy；　and　so　much　also　to　correct　and　improve；　every　one　who　has　this　moderate　amount　of　moral　and　intellectual　requisites　is　capable　of　an　existence　which　may　be　called　enviable；　and　unless　such　a　person；　through　bad　laws；　or　subjection　to　the　will　of　others；　is　denied　the　liberty　to　use　the　sources　of　happiness　within　his　reach；　he　will　not　fail　to　find　this　enviable　existence；　if　he　escape　the　positive　evils　of　life；　the　great　sources　of　physical　and　mental　suffering…　such　as　indigence；　disease；　and　the　unkindness；　worthlessness；　or　premature　loss　of　objects　of　affection。　The　main　stress　of　the　problem　lies；　therefore；　in　the　contest　with　these　calamities；　from　which　it　is　a　rare　good　fortune　entirely　to　escape；　which；　as　things　now　are；　cannot　be　obviated；　and　often　cannot　be　in　any　material　degree　mitigated。　Yet　no　one　whose　opinion　deserves　a　moment's　consideration　can　doubt　that　most　of　the　great　positive　evils　of　the　world　are　in　themselves　removable；　and　will；　if　human　affairs　continue　to　improve；　be　in　the　end　reduced　within　narrow　limits。　Poverty；　in　any　sense　implying　suffering；　may　be　completely　extinguished　by　the　wisdom　of　society；　combined　with　the　good　sense　and　providence　of　individuals。　Even　that　most　intractable　of　enemies；　disease；　may　be　indefinitely　reduced　in　dimensions　by　good　physical　and　moral　education；　and　proper　control　of　noxious　influences；　while　the　progress　of　science　holds　out　a　promise　for　the　future　of　still　more　direct　conquests　over　this　detestable　foe。　And　every　advance　in　that　direction　relieves　us　from　some；　not　only　of　the　chances　which　cut　short　our　own　lives；　but；　what　concerns　us　still　more；　which　deprive　us　of　those　in　whom　our　happiness　is　wrapt　up。　As　for　vicissitudes　of　fortune；　and　other　disappointments　connected　with　worldly　circumstances；　these　are　principally　the　effect　either　of　gross　imprudence；　of　ill…regulated　desires；　or　of　bad　or　imperfect　social　institutions。　　　All　the　grand　sources；　in　short；　of　human　suffering　are　in　a　great　degree；　many　of　them　almost　entirely；　conquerable　by　human　care　and　effort；　and　though　their　removal　is　grievously　slow…　though　a　long　succession　of　generations　will　perish　in　the　breach　before　the　conquest　is　completed；　and　this　world　becomes　all　that；　if　will　and　knowledge　were　not　wanting；　it　might　easily　be　made…　yet　every　mind　sufficiently　intelligent　and　generous　to　bear　a　part；　however　small　and　unconspicuous；　in　the　endeavour；　will　draw　a　noble　enjoyment　from　the　contest　itself；　which　he　would　not　for　any　bribe　in　the　form　of　selfish　indulgence　consent　to　be　without。　　　And　this　leads　to　the　true　estimation　of　what　is　said　by　the　objectors　concerning　the　possibility；　and　the　obligation；　of　learning　to　do　without　happiness。　Unquestionably　it　is　possible　to　do　without　happiness；　it　is　done　involuntarily　by　nineteen…twentieths　of　mankind；　even　in　those　parts　of　our　present　world　which　are　least　deep　in　barbarism；　and　it　often　has　to　be　done　voluntarily　by　the　hero　or　the　martyr；　for　the　sake　of　something　which　he　prizes　more　than　his　individual　happiness。　But　this　something；　what　is　it；　unless　the　happiness　of　others　or　some　of　the　requisites　of　happiness？　It　is　noble　to　be　capable　of　resigning　entirely　one's　own　portion　of　happiness；　or　chances　of　it：　but；　after　all；　this　self…sacrifice　must　be　for　some　end；　it　is　not　its　own　end；　and　if　we　are　told