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For example； in estimates of the gross income of the country；
founded on the proceeds of the income…tax； incomes derived from
the funds are not always excluded： though the tax…payers are
assessed on their whole nominal income； without being permitted
to deduct from it the portion levied from them in taxation to
form the income of the fundholder。 In this calculation；
therefore； one portion of the general income of the country is
counted twice over； and the aggregate amount made to appear
greater than it is by almost thirty millions。 A country； however；
may include in its wealth all stock held by its citizens in the
funds of foreign countries； and other debts due to them from
abroad。 But even this is only wealth to them by being a part
ownership in wealth held by others。 It forms no part of the
collective wealth of the human race。 It is an element in the
distribution； but not in the composition； of the general wealth。
Another example of a possession which is wealth to the person
holding it； but not wealth to the nation； or to mankind； is
slaves。 It is by a strange confusion of ideas that slave property
（as it is termed） is counted； at so much per head； in an estimate
of the wealth； or of the capital； of the country which tolerates
the existence of such property。 If a human being； considered as
an object possessing productive powers； is part of the national
wealth when his powers are owned by another man； he cannot be
less a part of it when they are owned by himself。 Whatever he is
worth to his master is so much property abstracted from himself；
and its abstraction cannot augment the possessions of the two
together； or of the country to which they both belong。 In
propriety of classification； however； the people of a country are
not to be counted in its wealth。 They are that for the sake of
which its wealth exists。 The term wealth is wanted to denote the
desirable objects which they possess； not inclusive of； but in
contradistinction to； their own persons。 They are not wealth to
themselves； though they are means of acquiring it。
It has been proposed to define wealth as signifying
〃instruments：〃 meaning not tools and machinery alone； but the
whole accumulation possessed by individuals or communities； of
means for the attainment of their ends。 Thus； a field is an
instrument； because it is a means to the attainment of corn。 Corn
is an instrument； being a means to the attainment of flour。 Flour
is an instrument； being a means to the attainment of bread。 Bread
is an instrument； as a means to the satisfaction of hunger and to
the support of life。 Here we at last arrive at things which are
not instruments； being desired on their own account； and not as
mere means to something beyond。 This view of the subject is
philosophically correct； or rather； this mode of expression may
be usefully employed along with others； not as conveying a
different view of the subject from the common one； but as giving
more distinctness and reality to the common view。 It departs；
however； too widely from the custom of language； to be likely to
obtain general acceptance； or to be of use for any other purpose
than that of occasional illustration。
Wealth； then； may be defined； all useful or agreeable things
which possess exchangeable value； or； in other words； all useful
or agreeable things except those which can be obtained； in the
quantity desired； without labour or sacrifice。 To this
definition； the only objection seems to be； that it leaves in
uncertainty a question which has been much debated whether
what are called immaterial products are to be considered as
wealth： whether； for example； the skill of a workman； or any
other natural or acquired power of body or mind； shall be called
wealth； or not： a question； not of very great importance； and
which； so far as requiring discussion； will be more conveniently
considered in another place。
These things having been premised respecting wealth； we shall
next turn our attention to the extraordinary differences in
respect to it； which exist between nation and nation； and between
different ages of the world； differences both in the quantity of
wealth； and in the kind of it； as well as in the manner in which
the wealth existing in the community is shared among its members。
There is perhaps； no people or community； now existing； which
subsists entirely on the spontaneous produce of vegetation。 But
many tribes still live exclusively； or almost exclusively； on
wild animals； the produce of hunting or fishing。 Their clothing
is skins； their habitations； huts rudely formed of logs or boughs
of trees； and abandoned at an hour's notice。 The food they use
being little susceptible of storing up； they have no accumulation
of it； and are often exposed to great privations。 The wealth of
such a community consists solely of the skins they wear； a few
ornaments； the taste for which exists among most savages； some
rude utensils； the weapons with which they kill their game； or
fight against hostile competitors for the means of subsistence；
canoes for crossing rivers and lakes； or fishing in the sea； and
perhaps some furs or other productions of the wilderness；
collected to be exchanged with civilized people for blankets；
brandy； and tobacco； of which foreign produce also there may be
some unconsumed portion in store。 To this scanty inventory of
material wealth； ought to be added their land； an instrument of
production of which they make slender use； compared with more
settled communities； but which is still the source of their
subsistence； and which has a marketable value if there be any
agricultural community in the neighbourhood requiring more land
than it possesses。 This is the state of greatest poverty in which
any entire community of human beings is known to exist； though
there are much richer communities in which portions of the
inhabitants are in a condition； as to subsistence and comfort； as
little enviable as that of the savage。
The first great advance beyond this state consists in the
domestication of the more useful animals； giving rise to the
pastoral or nomad state； in which mankind do not live on the
produce of hunting； but on milk and its products； and on the
annual increase of flocks and herds。 This condition is not only
more desirable in itself； but more conducive to further progress：
and a much more considerable amount of wealth is accumulated
under it。 So long as the vast natural pastures of the earth are
not yet so fully occupied as to be consumed more rapidly than
they are spontaneously reproduced； a large and constantly
increasing stock of subsistence may be collected and preserved；
with little other labour than that of guarding the cattle from
the attacks of wild beasts； and from the force or wiles of
predatory men。 Large flocks and herds； therefore； are in time
possessed； by active and thrifty individuals through their own
exertions； and by the heads of families and tribes through the
exertions of those who are connected with them by allegiance。
There thus arises； in the shepherd state； inequality of
possessions； a thing which scarcely exists in the savage state；
where no one has much more than absolute necessaries； and in case
of deficiency must share even those with his tribe。 In the nomad
state； some have an abundance of cattle； sufficient for the food
of a multitude； while others have not contrived to appropriate
and retain any superfluity； or perhaps any cattle at all。 But
subsistence has ceased to be precarious； since the more
successful have no other use which they can make of their surplus
than to feed the less fortunate； while every increase in the
number of persons connected with them is an increase both of
security and of power： and thus they are enabled to divest
themselves of all labour except that of government and
superintendence； and acquire dependents to fight for them in war
and to serve them in peace。 One of the features of this state of
society is； that a part of the community； and in some degree even
the whole of it； possess leisure。 Only a portion of time is
required for procuring food； and the remainder is not engrossed
by anxious thought for the morrow； or necessary repose from
muscular activity。 Such a life is highly favourable to the growth
of new wants； and opens a possibility of their gratification。 A
desire arises for better clothing； utensils； and implements； than
the savage state contents itself with； and the surplus food
renders it practicable to devote to these purposes the exertions
of a part of the tribe。 In all or most nomad communities we find
domestic manufactures of a coarse； and in some； of a fine kind。
There is ample evidence that while those parts of the world which
have been the cradle of modern civilization were still generally
in the nomad state； considerable skill had been attained in
spinning； weaving； and dyeing woollen garments； in t