按键盘上方向键 ← 或 → 可快速上下翻页，按键盘上的 Enter 键可回到本书目录页，按键盘上方向键 ↑ 可回到本页顶部！
————未阅读完？加入书签已便下次继续阅读！
part of it in maintaining the body of retainers whom the warlike
habits of society； and the little protection afforded by
government； rendered indispensable to their safety。 The greater
stability； the fixity of personal position； which this state of
society afforded； in comparison with the Asiatic polity to which
it economically corresponded； was one main reason why it was also
found more favourable to improvement。 From this time the
economical advancement of society has not been further
interrupted。 Security of person and property grew slowly； but
steadily。 the arts of life made constant progress； plunder ceased
to be the principal source of accumulation； and feudal Europe
ripened into commercial and manufacturing Europe。 In the latter
part of the Middle Ages； the towns of Italy and Flanders； the
free cities of Germany； and some towns of France and England；
contained a large and energetic population of artisans； and many
rich burghers； whose wealth had been acquired by manufacturing
industry； or by trading in the produce of such industry。 The
Commons of England； the Tiers…Etat of France； the bourgeoisie of
the Continent generally； are the descendants of this class。 As
these were a saving class； while the posterity of the feudal
aristocracy were a squandering class； the former by degrees
substituted themselves for the latter as the owners of a great
proportion of the land。 This natural tendency was in some cases
retarded by laws contrived for the purpose of detaining the land
in the families of its existing possessors； in other cases
accelerated by political revolutions。 Gradually； though more
slowly； the immediate cultivators of the soil； in all the more
civilized countries； ceased to be in a servile or semi…servile
state： though the legal position； as well as the economical
condition attained by them； vary extremely in the different
nations of Europe； and in the great communities which have been
founded beyond the Atlantic by the descendants of Europeans。
The world now contains several extensive regions； provided
with the various ingredients of wealth in a degree of abundance
of which former ages had not even the idea。 Without compulsory
labour； an enormous mass of food is annuaLly extracted from the
soil； and maintains； besides the actual producers； an equal；
sometimes a greater number of labourers； occupied in producing
conveniences and luxuries of innumerable kinds； or in
transporting them from place to place； also a multitude of
persons employed in directing and superintending these various
labours； and over and above all these； a class more numerous than
in the most luxurious ancient societies； of persons whose
occupations are of a kind not directly productive； and of persons
who have no occupation at all。 The food thus raised supports a
far larger population than had ever existed （at least in the same
regions） on an equal space of ground； and supports them with
certainty； exempt from those periodically recurring famines so
abundant in the early history of Europe； and in Oriental
countries even now not unfrequent。 Besides this great increase in
the quantity of food； it has greatly improved in quality and
variety； while conveniences and luxuries； other than food； are no
longer limited to a small and opulent class； but descend； in
great abundance； through many widening strata in society。 The
collective resources of one of these communities； when it chooses
to put them forth for any unexpected purpose； its ability to
maintain fleets and armies； to execute public works； either
useful or ornamental； to perform national acts of beneficence
like the ransom of the West India slaves； to found colonies； to
have its people taught； to do anything in short which requires
expense； and to do it with no sacrifice of the necessaries or
even the substantial comforts of its inhabitants； are such as the
world never saw before。
But in all these particulars； characteristic of the modern
industrial communities； those communities differ widely from one
another。 Though abounding in wealth as compared with former ages；
they do so in very different degrees。 Even of the countries which
are justly accounted the richest； some have made a more complete
use of their productive resources； and have obtained； relatively
to their territorial extent； a much larger produce； than others；
nor do they differ only in amount of wealth； but also in the
rapidity of its increase。 The diversities in the distribution of
wealth are still greater than in the production。 There are great
differences in the condition of the poorest class in different
countries； and in the proportional numbers and opulence of the
classes which are above the poorest。 The very nature and
designation of the classes who originally share among them the
produce of the soil； vary not a little in different places。 In
some； the landowners are a class in themselves； almost entirely
separate from the classes engaged in industry。 in others； the
proprietor of the land is almost universally its cultivator；
owning the plough； and often himself holding it。 Where the
proprietor himself does not cultivate； there is sometimes；
between him and the labourer； an intermediate agency； that of the
farmer； who advances the subsistence of the labourers； supplies
the instruments of production； and receives； after paying a rent
to the landowner； all the produce： in other cases； the landlord；
his paid agents； and the labourers； are the only sharers。
Manufactures； again； are sometimes carried on by scattered
individuals； who own or hire the tools or machinery they require；
and employ little labour besides that of their own family； in
other cases； by large numbers working together in one building；
with expensive and complex machinery owned by rich manufacturers。
The same difference exists in the operations of trade。 The
wholesale operations indeed are everywhere carried on by large
capitals； where such exist； but the retail dealings； which
collectively occupy a very great amount of capital； are sometimes
conducted in small shops； chiefly by the personal exertions of
the dealers themselves； with their families； and perhaps an
apprentice or two； and sometimes in large establishments； of
which the funds are supplied by a wealthy individual or
association； and the agency is that of numerous salaried shopmen
or shopwomen。 Besides these differences in the economical
phenomena presented by different parts of what is usually called
the civilized world； all those earlier states which we previously
passed in review； have continued in some part or other of the
world； down to our own time。 Hunting communities still exist in
America； nomadic in Arabia and the steppes of Northern Asia；
Oriental society is in essentials what it has always been； the
great empire of Russia is even now； in many respects； the
scarcely modified image of feudal Europe。 Every one of the great
types of human society； down to that of the Esquimaux or
Patagonians； is still extant。
These remarkable differences in the state of different
portions of the human race； with regard to the production and
distribution of wealth； must； like all other phenomena； depend on
causes。 And it is not a sufficient explanation to ascribe them
exclusively to the degrees of knowledge possessed at different
times and places； of the laws of nature and the physical arts of
life。 Many other causes co…operate； and that very progress and
unequal distribution of physical knowledge are partly the
effects； as well as partly the causes； of the state of the
production and distribution of wealth。
In so far as the economical condition of nations turns upon
the state of physical knowledge； it is a subject for the physical
sciences； and the arts founded on them。 But in so far as the
causes are moral or psychological； dependent on institutions and
social relations； or on the principles of human nature； their
investigation belongs not to physical； but to moral and social
science； and is the object of what is called Political Economy。
The production of wealth； the extraction of the instruments
of human subsistence and enjoyment from the materials of the
globe； is evidently not an arbitrary thing。 It has its necessary
conditions。 Of these； some are physical； depending on the
properties of matter； and on the amount of knowledge of those
properties possessed at the particular place and time。 These
Political Economy does not investigate； but assumes； referring
for the grounds； to physical science or common experience。
Combining with these facts of outward nature other truths
relating to human nature； it attempts to trace the secondary or
derivative laws； by which the production of wealth is determined；
in which must lie the explanation of the diversities of riches
and poverty in the present and past； and the ground of whatever
increase in wealth is reserved for the future。