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experiences wake up in the mind of the hearer。 Not only does he receive an
impression； but he brings previous knowledge to bear upon that impression。
Necessarily the pictorial image becomes less vivid； while the association
of the nature and habits of the animal is more distinctly perceived。 The
picture passes into a symbol； for there would be too many of them and they
would crowd the mind； the vocal imitation； too； is always in process of
being lost and being renewed； just as the picture is brought back again in
the description of the poet。 Words now can be used more freely because
there are more of them。 What was once an involuntary expression becomes
voluntary。 Not only can men utter a cry or call； but they can communicate
and converse； they can not only use words； but they can even play with
them。 The word is separated both from the object and from the mind； and
slowly nations and individuals attain to a fuller consciousness of
themselves。
Parallel with this mental process the articulation of sounds is gradually
becoming perfected。 The finer sense detects the differences of them； and
begins； first to agglomerate； then to distinguish them。 Times； persons；
places； relations of all kinds； are expressed by modifications of them。
The earliest parts of speech； as we may call them by anticipation； like the
first utterances of children； probably partook of the nature of
interjections and nouns； then came verbs； at length the whole sentence
appeared； and rhythm and metre followed。 Each stage in the progress of
language was accompanied by some corresponding stage in the mind and
civilisation of man。 In time； when the family became a nation； the wild
growth of dialects passed into a language。 Then arose poetry and
literature。 We can hardly realize to ourselves how much with each
improvement of language the powers of the human mind were enlarged； how the
inner world took the place of outer； how the pictorial or symbolical or
analogical word was refined into a notion； how language； fair and large and
free； was at last complete。
So we may imagine the speech of man to have begun as with the cries of
animals； or the stammering lips of children； and to have attained by
degrees the perfection of Homer and Plato。 Yet we are far from saying that
this or any other theory of language is proved by facts。 It is not
difficult to form an hypothesis which by a series of imaginary transitions
will bridge over the chasm which separates man from the animals。
Differences of kind may often be thus resolved into differences of degree。
But we must not assume that we have in this way discovered the true account
of them。 Through what struggles the harmonious use of the organs of speech
was acquired； to what extent the conditions of human life were different；
how far the genius of individuals may have contributed to the discovery of
this as of the other arts； we cannot say： Only we seem to see that
language is as much the creation of the ear as of the tongue； and the
expression of a movement stirring the hearts not of one man only but of
many； 'as the trees of the wood are stirred by the wind。' The theory is
consistent or not inconsistent with our own mental experience； and throws
some degree of light upon a dark corner of the human mind。
In the later analysis of language； we trace the opposite and contrasted
elements of the individual and nation； of the past and present； of the
inward and outward； of the subject and object； of the notional and
relational； of the root or unchanging part of the word and of the changing
inflexion； if such a distinction be admitted； of the vowel and the
consonant； of quantity and accent； of speech and writing； of poetry and
prose。 We observe also the reciprocal influence of sounds and conceptions
on each other； like the connexion of body and mind； and further remark that
although the names of objects were originally proper names； as the
grammarian or logician might call them； yet at a later stage they become
universal notions； which combine into particulars and individuals； and are
taken out of the first rude agglomeration of sounds that they may be
replaced in a higher and more logical order。 We see that in the simplest
sentences are contained grammar and logicthe parts of speech； the Eleatic
philosophy and the Kantian categories。 So complex is language； and so
expressive not only of the meanest wants of man； but of his highest
thoughts； so various are the aspects in which it is regarded by us。 Then
again； when we follow the history of languages； we observe that they are
always slowly moving； half dead； half alive； half solid； half fluid； the
breath of a moment； yet like the air； continuous in all ages and
countries；like the glacier； too； containing within them a trickling
stream which deposits debris of the rocks over which it passes。 There were
happy moments； as we may conjecture； in the lives of nations； at which they
came to the birthas in the golden age of literature； the man and the time
seem to conspire； the eloquence of the bard or chief； as in later times the
creations of the great writer who is the expression of his age； became
impressed on the minds of their countrymen； perhaps in the hour of some
crisis of national developmenta migration； a conquest； or the like。 The
picture of the word which was beginning to be lost； is now revived； the
sound again echoes to the sense； men find themselves capable not only of
expressing more feelings； and describing more objects； but of expressing
and describing them better。 The world before the flood； that is to say；
the world of ten； twenty； a hundred thousand years ago； has passed away and
left no sign。 But the best conception that we can form of it； though
imperfect and uncertain； is gained from the analogy of causes still in
action； some powerful and sudden； others working slowly in the course of
infinite ages。 Something too may be allowed to 'the persistency of the
strongest；' to 'the survival of the fittest；' in this as in the other
realms of nature。
These are some of the reflections which the modern philosophy of language
suggests to us about the powers of the human mind and the forces and
influences by which the efforts of men to utter articulate sounds were
inspired。 Yet in making these and similar generalizations we may note also
dangers to which we are exposed。 （1） There is the confusion of ideas with
factsof mere possibilities； and generalities； and modes of conception
with actual and definite knowledge。 The words 'evolution；' 'birth；' 'law；'
development；' 'instinct；' 'implicit；' 'explicit；' and the like； have a
false clearness or comprehensiveness； which adds nothing to our knowledge。
The metaphor of a flower or a tree； or some other work of nature or art； is
often in like manner only a pleasing picture。 （2） There is the fallacy of
resolving the languages which we know into their parts； and then imagining
that we can discover the nature of language by reconstructing them。 （3）
There is the danger of identifying language； not with thoughts but with
ideas。 （4） There is the error of supposing that the analysis of grammar
and logic has always existed； or that their distinctions were familiar to
Socrates and Plato。 （5） There is the fallacy of exaggerating； and also of
diminishing the interval which separates articulate from inarticulate
languagethe cries of animals from the speech of manthe instincts of
animals from the reason of man。 （6） There is the danger which besets all
enquiries into the early history of manof interpreting the past by the
present； and of substituting the definite and intelligible for the true but
dim outline which is the horizon of human knowledge。
The greatest light is thrown upon the nature of language by analogy。 We
have the analogy of the cries of animals； of the songs of birds （'man； like
the nightingale； is a singing bird； but is ever binding up thoughts with
musical notes'）； of music； of children learning to speak； of barbarous
nations in which the linguistic instinct is still undecayed； of ourselves
learning to think and speak a new language； of the deaf and dumb who have
words without sounds； of the various disorders of speech； and we have the
after…growth of mythology； which； like language； is an unconscious creation
of the human mind。 We can observe the social and collective instincts of
animals； and may remark how； when domesticated； they have the power of
understanding but not of speaking； while on the other hand； some birds
which are comparatively devoid of intelligence； make a nearer approach to
articulate speech。 We may note how in the animals there is a want of that
sympathy with one another which appears to be the soul of language。 We can
compare the use of speech with other mental and bodily operations； for
speech too is a kind of gesture； and in the child or savage accompanied
with gesture。 We may observe that