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Plato and with Horace that usage is the ruling principle； 'quem penes
arbitrium est； et jus et norma loquendi。'
（8） There are two ways in which a language may attain permanence or fixity。
First； it may have been embodied in poems or hymns or laws； which may be
repeated for hundreds； perhaps for thousands of years with a religious
accuracy； so that to the priests or rhapsodists of a nation the whole or
the greater part of a language is literally preserved； secondly； it may be
written down and in a written form distributed more or less widely among
the whole nation。 In either case the language which is familiarly spoken
may have grown up wholly or in a great measure independently of them。 （1）
The first of these processes has been sometimes attended by the result that
the sound of the words has been carefully preserved and that the meaning of
them has either perished wholly； or is only doubtfully recovered by the
efforts of modern philology。 The verses have been repeated as a chant or
part of a ritual； but they have had no relation to ordinary life or speech。
（2） The invention of writing again is commonly attributed to a particular
epoch； and we are apt to think that such an inestimable gift would have
immediately been diffused over a whole country。 But it may have taken a
long time to perfect the art of writing； and another long period may have
elapsed before it came into common use。 Its influence on language has been
increased ten； twenty or one hundred fold by the invention of printing。
Before the growth of poetry or the invention of writing； languages were
only dialects。 So they continued to be in parts of the country in which
writing was not used or in which there was no diffusion of literature。 In
most of the counties of England there is still a provincial style； which
has been sometimes made by a great poet the vehicle of his fancies。 When a
book sinks into the mind of a nation； such as Luther's Bible or the
Authorized English Translation of the Bible； or again great classical works
like Shakspere or Milton； not only have new powers of expression been
diffused through a whole nation； but a great step towards uniformity has
been made。 The instinct of language demands regular grammar and correct
spelling： these are imprinted deeply on the tablets of a nation's memory
by a common use of classical and popular writers。 In our own day we have
attained to a point at which nearly every printed book is spelt correctly
and written grammatically。
（9） Proceeding further to trace the influence of literature on language we
note some other causes which have affected the higher use of it： such as
（1） the necessity of clearness and connexion； （2） the fear of tautology；
（3） the influence of metre； rhythm； rhyme； and of the language of prose and
verse upon one another； （4） the power of idiom and quotation； （5） the
relativeness of words to one another。
It has been usual to depreciate modern languages when compared with
ancient。 The latter are regarded as furnishing a type of excellence to
which the former cannot attain。 But the truth seems to be that modern
languages； if through the loss of inflections and genders they lack some
power or beauty or expressiveness or precision which is possessed by the
ancient； are in many other respects superior to them： the thought is
generally clearer； the connexion closer； the sentence and paragraph are
better distributed。 The best modern languages； for example English or
French； possess as great a power of self…improvement as the Latin； if not
as the Greek。 Nor does there seem to be any reason why they should ever
decline or decay。 It is a popular remark that our great writers are
beginning to disappear： it may also be remarked that whenever a great
writer appears in the future he will find the English language as perfect
and as ready for use as in the days of Shakspere or Milton。 There is no
reason to suppose that English or French will ever be reduced to the low
level of Modern Greek or of Mediaeval Latin。 The wide diffusion of great
authors would make such a decline impossible。 Nor will modern languages be
easily broken up by amalgamation with each other。 The distance between
them is too wide to be spanned； the differences are too great to be
overcome； and the use of printing makes it impossible that one of them
should ever be lost in another。
The structure of the English language differs greatly from that of either
Latin or Greek。 In the two latter； especially in Greek； sentences are
joined together by connecting particles。 They are distributed on the right
hand and on the left by men； de； alla； kaitoi； kai de and the like； or
deduced from one another by ara； de； oun； toinun and the like。 In English
the majority of sentences are independent and in apposition to one another；
they are laid side by side or slightly connected by the copula。 But within
the sentence the expression of the logical relations of the clauses is
closer and more exact： there is less of apposition and participial
structure。 The sentences thus laid side by side are also constructed into
paragraphs； these again are less distinctly marked in Greek and Latin than
in English。 Generally French； German； and English have an advantage over
the classical languages in point of accuracy。 The three concords are more
accurately observed in English than in either Greek or Latin。 On the other
hand； the extension of the familiar use of the masculine and feminine
gender to objects of sense and abstract ideas as well as to men and animals
no doubt lends a nameless grace to style which we have a difficulty in
appreciating； and the possible variety in the order of words gives more
flexibility and also a kind of dignity to the period。 Of the comparative
effect of accent and quantity and of the relation between them in ancient
and modern languages we are not able to judge。
Another quality in which modern are superior to ancient languages is
freedom from tautology。 No English style is thought tolerable in which；
except for the sake of emphasis； the same words are repeated at short
intervals。 Of course the length of the interval must depend on the
character of the word。 Striking words and expressions cannot be allowed to
reappear； if at all； except at the distance of a page or more。 Pronouns；
prepositions； conjunctions may or rather must recur in successive lines。
It seems to be a kind of impertinence to the reader and strikes
unpleasantly both on the mind and on the ear that the same sounds should be
used twice over； when another word or turn of expression would have given a
new shade of meaning to the thought and would have added a pleasing variety
to the sound。 And the mind equally rejects the repetition of the word and
the use of a mere synonym for it；e。g。 felicity and happiness。 The
cultivated mind desires something more； which a skilful writer is easily
able to supply out of his treasure…house。
The fear of tautology has doubtless led to the multiplications of words and
the meanings of words； and generally to an enlargement of the vocabulary。
It is a very early instinct of language； for ancient poetry is almost as
free from tautology as the best modern writings。 The speech of young
children； except in so far as they are compelled to repeat themselves by
the fewness of their words； also escapes from it。 When they grow up and
have ideas which are beyond their powers of expression； especially in
writing； tautology begins to appear。 In like manner when language is
'contaminated' by philosophy it is apt to become awkward； to stammer and
repeat itself； to lose its flow and freedom。 No philosophical writer with
the exception of Plato； who is himself not free from tautology； and perhaps
Bacon； has attained to any high degree of literary excellence。
To poetry the form and polish of language is chiefly to be attributed； and
the most critical period in the history of language is the transition from
verse to prose。 At first mankind were contented to express their thoughts
in a set form of words having a kind of rhythm； to which regularity was
given by accent and quantity。 But after a time they demanded a greater
degree of freedom； and to those who had all their life been hearing poetry
the first introduction of prose had the charm of novelty。 The prose
romances into which the Homeric Poems were converted； for a while probably
gave more delight to the hearers or readers of them than the Poems
themselves； and in time the relation of the two was reversed： the poems
which had once been a necessity of the human mind became a luxury： they
were now superseded by prose； which in all succeeding ages became the
natural vehicle of expression to all mankind。 Henceforward prose and
poetry formed each other。 A comparatively slender link between them was
also furnished by proverbs。 We may trace in poetry how the simple
succession of lin