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as his method is when he has to paint flesh colour or anything of that
kindhe uses his colours as his figures appear to require them； and so；
too； we shall apply letters to the expression of objects； either single
letters when required； or several letters； and so we shall form syllables；
as they are called； and from syllables make nouns and verbs； and thus； at
last； from the combinations of nouns and verbs arrive at language； large
and fair and whole； and as the painter made a figure； even so shall we make
speech by the art of the namer or the rhetorician； or by some other art。
Not that I am literally speaking of ourselves； but I was carried away
meaning to say that this was the way in which （not we but） the ancients
formed language； and what they put together we must take to pieces in like
manner； if we are to attain a scientific view of the whole subject； and we
must see whether the primary； and also whether the secondary elements are
rightly given or not； for if they are not； the composition of them； my dear
Hermogenes； will be a sorry piece of work； and in the wrong direction。
HERMOGENES： That； Socrates； I can quite believe。
SOCRATES： Well； but do you suppose that you will be able to analyse them
in this way？ for I am certain that I should not。
HERMOGENES： Much less am I likely to be able。
SOCRATES： Shall we leave them； then？ or shall we seek to discover； if we
can； something about them； according to the measure of our ability； saying
by way of preface； as I said before of the Gods； that of the truth about
them we know nothing； and do but entertain human notions of them。 And in
this present enquiry； let us say to ourselves； before we proceed； that the
higher method is the one which we or others who would analyse language to
any good purpose must follow； but under the circumstances； as men say； we
must do as well as we can。 What do you think？
HERMOGENES： I very much approve。
SOCRATES： That objects should be imitated in letters and syllables； and so
find expression； may appear ridiculous； Hermogenes； but it cannot be
avoidedthere is no better principle to which we can look for the truth of
first names。 Deprived of this； we must have recourse to divine help； like
the tragic poets； who in any perplexity have their gods waiting in the air；
and must get out of our difficulty in like fashion； by saying that 'the
Gods gave the first names； and therefore they are right。' This will be the
best contrivance； or perhaps that other notion may be even better still； of
deriving them from some barbarous people； for the barbarians are older than
we are； or we may say that antiquity has cast a veil over them； which is
the same sort of excuse as the last； for all these are not reasons but only
ingenious excuses for having no reasons concerning the truth of words。 And
yet any sort of ignorance of first or primitive names involves an ignorance
of secondary words； for they can only be explained by the primary。 Clearly
then the professor of languages should be able to give a very lucid
explanation of first names； or let him be assured he will only talk
nonsense about the rest。 Do you not suppose this to be true？
HERMOGENES： Certainly； Socrates。
SOCRATES： My first notions of original names are truly wild and
ridiculous； though I have no objection to impart them to you if you desire；
and I hope that you will communicate to me in return anything better which
you may have。
HERMOGENES： Fear not； I will do my best。
SOCRATES： In the first place； the letter rho appears to me to be the
general instrument expressing all motion （kinesis）。 But I have not yet
explained the meaning of this latter word； which is just iesis （going）； for
the letter eta was not in use among the ancients； who only employed
epsilon； and the root is kiein； which is a foreign form； the same as ienai。
And the old word kinesis will be correctly given as iesis in corresponding
modern letters。 Assuming this foreign root kiein； and allowing for the
change of the eta and the insertion of the nu； we have kinesis； which
should have been kieinsis or eisis； and stasis is the negative of ienai （or
eisis）； and has been improved into stasis。 Now the letter rho； as I was
saying； appeared to the imposer of names an excellent instrument for the
expression of motion； and he frequently uses the letter for this purpose：
for example； in the actual words rein and roe he represents motion by rho；
also in the words tromos （trembling）； trachus （rugged）； and again； in words
such as krouein （strike）； thrauein （crush）； ereikein （bruise）； thruptein
（break）； kermatixein （crumble）； rumbein （whirl）： of all these sorts of
movements he generally finds an expression in the letter R； because； as I
imagine； he had observed that the tongue was most agitated and least at
rest in the pronunciation of this letter； which he therefore used in order
to express motion； just as by the letter iota he expresses the subtle
elements which pass through all things。 This is why he uses the letter
iota as imitative of motion； ienai； iesthai。 And there is another class of
letters； phi； psi； sigma； and xi； of which the pronunciation is accompanied
by great expenditure of breath； these are used in the imitation of such
notions as psuchron （shivering）； xeon （seething）； seiesthai； （to be
shaken）； seismos （shock）； and are always introduced by the giver of names
when he wants to imitate what is phusodes （windy）。 He seems to have
thought that the closing and pressure of the tongue in the utterance of
delta and tau was expressive of binding and rest in a place： he further
observed the liquid movement of lambda； in the pronunciation of which the
tongue slips； and in this he found the expression of smoothness； as in
leios （level）； and in the word oliothanein （to slip） itself； liparon
（sleek）； in the word kollodes （gluey）； and the like： the heavier sound of
gamma detained the slipping tongue； and the union of the two gave the
notion of a glutinous clammy nature； as in glischros； glukus； gloiodes。
The nu he observed to be sounded from within； and therefore to have a
notion of inwardness； hence he introduced the sound in endos and entos：
alpha he assigned to the expression of size； and nu of length； because they
are great letters： omicron was the sign of roundness； and therefore there
is plenty of omicron mixed up in the word goggulon （round）。 Thus did the
legislator； reducing all things into letters and syllables； and impressing
on them names and signs； and out of them by imitation compounding other
signs。 That is my view； Hermogenes； of the truth of names； but I should
like to hear what Cratylus has more to say。
HERMOGENES： But； Socrates； as I was telling you before； Cratylus mystifies
me； he says that there is a fitness of names； but he never explains what is
this fitness； so that I cannot tell whether his obscurity is intended or
not。 Tell me now； Cratylus； here in the presence of Socrates； do you agree
in what Socrates has been saying about names； or have you something better
of your own？ and if you have； tell me what your view is； and then you will
either learn of Socrates； or Socrates and I will learn of you。
CRATYLUS： Well； but surely； Hermogenes； you do not suppose that you can
learn； or I explain； any subject of importance all in a moment； at any
rate； not such a subject as language； which is； perhaps； the very greatest
of all。
HERMOGENES： No； indeed； but； as Hesiod says； and I agree with him； 'to add
little to little' is worth while。 And； therefore； if you think that you
can add anything at all； however small； to our knowledge； take a little
trouble and oblige Socrates； and me too； who certainly have a claim upon
you。
SOCRATES： I am by no means positive； Cratylus； in the view which
Hermogenes and myself have worked out； and therefore do not hesitate to say
what you think； which if it be better than my own view I shall gladly
accept。 And I should not be at all surprized to find that you have found
some better notion。 For you have evidently reflected on these matters and
have had teachers； and if you have really a better theory of the truth of
names； you may count me in the number of your disciples。
CRATYLUS： You are right； Socrates； in saying that I have made a study of
these matters； and I might possibly convert you into a disciple。 But I
fear that the opposite is more probable； and I already find myself moved to
say to you what Achilles in the 'Prayers' says to Ajax；
'Illustrious Ajax； son of Telamon； lord of the people；
You appear to have spoken in all things much to my mind。'
And you； Socrates； appear to me to be an oracle； and to give answers much
to my mind； whether you are inspired by Euthyphro； or whether some Muse may
have long been an inhabitant of your breast； unconsciously to yourself。
SOCRATES： Excellent Cratylus； I have long been wondering at my ow