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Contact with others will be confined to giving instructions about work and
plaining about poor performance。 A Theory…Y approach will involve
collaborating over decisions rather than issuing orders； and sharing
feedback so that everyone can learn from both success and failures； rather
than just reprimanding when things go wrong。
Hygiene and motivation theory
Frederick Hertzberg； professor of psychology at Case Western Reserve
University in Cleveland； United States； discovered that distinctly separate
factors were the cause of job satisfaction and job dissatisfaction。 His research
revealed that five factors stood out as strong determinants of job
satisfaction。
Motivators
。 Achievement： People want to succeed； so if you can set goals that people
can reach and be。。er； they will be much more satisfied than if they are
constantly missing targets。
。 Recognition： Everyone likes their hard work to be acknowledged。 Not
everyone wants that recognition made in the same way； however。
。 Responsibility： People like the opportunity to take responsibility
for their own work and for the whole task。 This helps them grow as
individuals。
。 Advancement： Promotion or at any rate progress are key motivators。
In a small firm； providing career prospects for key staff can be a fundamental
reason for growth。
。 The a。。ractiveness of work itself （job interest）： There is no reason why a
job should be dull。 You need to make people’s jobs interesting and give
them a say in how their work is done。 That will encourage new ideas on
how things can be done be。。er。
When the reasons for dissatisfaction were analysed they were found to be
concerned with a different range of factors。
Organizational Behaviour 143
Hygiene factors
。 pany policy： Rules； formal and informal； such as start and finish
times； meal breaks； dress code。
。 Supervision： To what extent are employees allowed to get on with the
job； or do people have someone looking over their shoulders all day？
。 Administration： Do things work well； or is paperwork in a muddle and
supplies always e in late？
。 Salary： Are employees ge。。ing at least the going rate and benefits
parable with others？
。 Working conditions： Are people expected to work in substandard
conditions with poor equipment and li。。le job security？
。 Interpersonal relationships： Is the atmosphere in work good or are
people at daggers drawn？
Hertzberg called these causes of dissatisfaction ‘hygiene factors’。 He
reasoned that the lack of hygiene will cause disease； but the presence of
hygienic conditions will not； of itself； produce good health。 So the lack of
adequate ‘job hygiene’ will cause dissatisfaction but hygienic conditions
alone will not bring about job satisfaction； to do that you have to work on
the determinants of job satisfaction。
Other theories of motivation
There are a plethora of theories of how to motivate people at work and elsewhere。
（See the partial list below。） As the subject has matured； researchers
have segmented the market into ever…smaller sub…topics； for example
focusing on certain subgroups； difficult people for example； or special situations
such as a。。er a merger or closure of part of a business。
。 Achievement motivation theory （Atkinson； 1964）
。 Action…oute expectancy （Heckhausen； 1991）
。 A。。ributional theory of achievement motivation （Weiner； 1972）
。 Cognitive dissonance theory （Festinger； 1957）
。 Effectance motivation （White； 1959； Harter； 1978a）
。 Expectancy times value theory （Vroom； 1964）
。 Goal…se。。ing theory （Locke； 1968）
。 Intrinsic motivation （Deci； 1975）
。 Learned helplessness theory （Seligman； 1975）
。 Neuro…linguistic programming – NLP （Bandler and Grinder； 1976）
。 Reactance theory （Brehm； 1966）
。 Self…efficacy theory （Bandura； 1977）
The guiding principle for all motivation practice is that people respond
to a much wider range of stimulations other than life and death； fear and
144 The Thirty…Day MBA
greed or stick and carrot。 There is a thumbnail sketch of the 50 or so people
whose theories on motivation and organizations have brought them to
prominence and that an MBA should have at least an appreciation of at this
website （onepine。info/people。htm）。
LEADERSHIP
However great the employees are； unless a business has effective leadership
nothing of great value can be made to happen。 While the boss may have a
pre。。y clear idea of what the business is all about and what makes it special
and different； it may not be so clear to those who work further down。
Employees o。。en just keep their heads down and get on with the task in
hand。 While that’s a useful trait； it is not sufficient to make a business a
great place to work。 To make that happen； the boss has to have a precise
idea of where the business is heading and use their leadership skills to
achieve results。
Tasks
Leaders have three major tasks： to determine the direction； chart the course
and set the goals。 The direction of a business has a number of ponents
that can be best understood if thought of as being parts of a pyramid。 （See
Figure 4。8。）
Figure 4。8 The purpose pyramid
Action plans
Key tasks
Objectives
Mission
Start the
planning
process
Derive
from the
planning
process
Vision
A vision is about stretching the organization’s reach beyond its grasp。 Few
now can see how the vision can be achieved； but can see that it would be
great if it could be done。
Organizational Behaviour 145
Microso。。’s vision of a puter in every home； formed when few offices
had one； is one example of a vision that has nearly been reached。 As a
mission statement in 1990 it might have raised a wry smile。 A。。er all； it was
only a few decades before then that IBM had estimated the entire world
demand for its puters as seven！
NASDAQ； the entrepreneurs’ stock market； has as its vision： To build the
world’s first truly global securities market。 ‘A world…wide market of markets
built on a world…wide network of network linking pools of liquidity and
connecting investors from all over the world thus assuring the best possible
price for securities at the lowest possible costs。’ That certainly points to
beyond the horizon envisaged by business today。
Having a vision will make it easier to get employees to buy into a longterm
mitment to a business – they will see that they could have career
opportunities and progression in an organization that knows where it is
going。
Mission
A mission is a direction statement； intended to focus your a。。ention on the
essentials that encapsulate your specific petence（s） in relation to the
market/customers you plan to serve。 First； the mission should be narrow
enough to give direction and guidance to everyone in the business。 This
concentration is the key to business success because it is only by focusing
on specific needs that a small business can differentiate itself from its larger
petitors。 Nothing kills off a business faster than trying to do too many
different things too soon。 Second； the mission should open up a large
enough market to allow the business to grow and realize its potential。 You
can always add a bit on later。
In summary； the mission statement should explain：
。 what business you are in and your purpose；
。 what you want to achieve over the next one to three years； ie your
strategic goal；
。 how； ie your ethics； values and standards。
Above all； mission statements must be realistic； achievable – and brief。
Objectives
The milestones on the way to realizing the vision and mission are measured
by the achievement of business objectives。 These objectives ‘cascade’
through the organization from the top； where they are measures of profit；
through to measures such as output； quality； reject rates； absenteeism and
so forth。
146 The Thirty…Day MBA
Objective se。。ing is a primary process in which clear performance measures
are agreed with every employee。 The achievement of specific objectives is
the ultimate measure of effective leadership。
MANAGEMENT
Leadership and management are not the same thing； but you need both。 A
leader challenges the status quo； while a manager accepts it as a constraint。
A boss usually has to be both a leader and a manager。 Dozens of catchy
titles such as bo。。om…up； top…down； management by objectives and crisis
management have been used to describe the many and various theories as
to how to manage。
Judy Lever and Vivienne Pringle started Blooming Marvellous over 20
years ago when they were both pregnant。 After searching for the kind
of fashionable clothes they used to wear and drawing a blank； they
guessed they had found a gap in the market。 They stated their purpose
and goals as follows：
Arising out of our experiences； we intend to design； make and market
a range of clothes for mothers…to…be that will make them feel they can
still be fashionably dressed。 We aim to serve a niche missed out by
Mothercare； Marks & Spencer； etc； and so bee a significant force
in the mail order fashion for the mothers…to…be market。
We are aiming for a 5 per cent share of this market in the Southeast；
and a 25 per cent return