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accounts must not only be timely； but should be reliable too； and no ma。。er
where accounting is studied you can be certain that the general principles
will be universally applied。
An MBA is unlikely to be required to perform the recording side of the
accounting process。 But it is only by knowing how accounts are prepared
and the rules governing the categorizing of assets and liabilities that you can
gain a good understanding of what the figures really mean。 For example；
it is not obvious to the uninitiated that a pany’s shares are classed as
a liability and that there is not the remotest possibility that the assets as
recorded will realize anything like the figures shown in the accounts。
THE RULES OF THE GAME
Accounting is certainly not an exact science。 Even the most enthusiastic
member of the profession would not make that claim。 There is considerable
scope for interpretation and educated guesswork as all the facts are rarely
available when the accounts are drawn up。 For example； we may not know
for certain that a particular customer will actually pay up； yet unless we
have firm evidence that they won’t； for example if the business is failing；
then the value of the money owed will appear in the accounts。
Obviously； if accountants and managers had plete freedom to
interpret events as they wished； no one inside or outside the business would
place any reliance on the figures； so certain ground rules have been laid
down by the profession to help get a level of consistency into accounting
information。
FUNDAMENTAL CONVENTIONS
These are the enduring principles that govern the way in which the accounting
profession assembles and presents financial information。
Money measurement
In accounting； a record is kept only of the facts that can be expressed in
money terms。 For example； the state of the managing director’s health and
the news that your main petitor is opening up right opposite in a more
a。。ractive outlet are important business facts。 No accounting record of them
is made； however； and they do not show up on the balance sheet； simply
because no objective monetary value can be assigned to these facts。
Expressing business facts in money terms has the great advantage of
providing a mon denominator。 Just imagine trying to add puter
18 The Thirty…Day MBA
equipment and vehicles； together with a 4；000 sq m office； and then arriving
at a total。 You need a mon term to be able to carry out the basic
arithmetical functions； and to pare one set of accounts with another。
Business entity
The accounts are kept for the business itself； rather than for the owner（s）；
bankers； or anyone else associated with the firm。 The concept states that
assets and liabilities are always defined from the business’s viewpoint。 So；
for example； were a business owner to lend his business money it would
appear in the accounts as a liability； though in effect he might see it as
his own money。 Anything done with that money； say buying equipment；
would appear in the accounts as an asset of the business。 The owner’s stake
is accounted for only by the increase or decrease in net worth of the enterprise
as a whole。
Cost concept
Assets are usually entered into the accounts at the cost at date of purchase。
For a variety of reasons； the real ‘worth’ of an asset will probably change
over time。 The worth； or value； of an asset is a subjective estimate on which
no two people are likely to agree。 This is made even more plex； and
artificial； because the assets themselves are usually not for sale。
So in the search for objectivity； the accountants have se。。led for cost as
the figure to record。 It does mean that a balance sheet does not show the
current worth or value of a business。 That is not its intention。 Nor does
it mean that the ‘cost’ figure remains unchanged forever。 For example； a
motor vehicle costing ￡6；000 may end up looking like Table 1。1 a。。er two
years。
The depreciation is how we show the asset being ‘consumed’ over its
working life。 It is simply a bookkeeping record to allow us to allocate some
of the cost of an asset to the appropriate time period。
Table 1。1 Example of the changing ‘worth’ of an asset
Year 1 Year 2
Fixed assets ￡ Fixed assets ￡
Vehicle 6；000 Vehicle 6；000
Less cumulative
depreciation
1；500 Less cumulative
depreciation
3；000
Net asset 4；500 Net asset 3；000
Accounting 19
The time period will be determined by factors such as the working life
of the asset。 The tax authorities do not allow depreciation as a business
expense； so this figure can’t be manipulated to reduce tax liability； for
example。 A tax relief on the capital expenditure； known as ‘writing down’；
is allowed； using a formula set by government that varies from time to time
dependent on current economic goals； for example to stimulate capital
expenditure。
Other assets； such as freehold land and buildings； will be revalued from
time to time； and stock will be entered at cost； or market value； whichever
is the lower； in line with the principle of conservatism （see later in this
chapter）。
Other methods for recording assets
While cost at date of purchase is the norm for accounting for assets in conventional
enterprises； there are certain types of businesses and certain
situations when other methods of recording a monetary figure are used：
。 Market value： This is usually used when an asset is actually to be sold
and there is an established market for that particular type of asset。 This
could arise when a business or part of a business is to be closed down。
。 Fair value： This is described as the estimated price at which an asset
could be exchanged between knowledgeable but unrelated willing
parties who have not； and may not； actually exchange。 This basis is
o。。en used in the due diligence process； where； because of particular
synergies； a price higher than market value （resulting in goodwill）
could reasonably be set。
。 Market to market： This is where market value is calculated on a daily
basis； usually by financial institutions such as banks and stockbrokers。
This can result in dramatic changes in value in turbulent market
conditions； requiring additional assets； including cash； to be found
to cover a fall in market price。 This approach is blamed for helping
to create liquidity ‘black holes’ by forcing banks to sell assets to meet
liquidity targets； which in turn forces prices lower； requiring yet more
assets to be sold。
Going concern
Accounting reports always assume that a business will continue trading
indefinitely into the future – unless there is good evidence to the contrary。
This means that the assets of the business are looked at simply as profit
generators and not as being available for sale。 Look again at the motor
vehicle example above。 In year 2； the net asset figure in the accounts；
prepared on a ‘going concern’ basis； is ￡3；000。 If we knew that the business
20 The Thirty…Day MBA
was to close down in a few weeks； then we would be more interested in
the car’s resale value than its ‘book’ value： the car might fetch only ￡2；000；
which is quite a different figure。
Once a business stops trading； we cannot realistically look at the assets
in the same way。 They are no longer being used in the business to help
generate sales and profits。 The most objective figure is what they might
realize in the marketplace。
Dual aspect
To keep a plete record of any business transaction we need to know
both where money came from and what has been done with it。 It is not
enough simply to say； for example； that a bank has lent a business ￡1m；
we have to show how that money has been used； for example to buy a
property； increase stock levels； or in some other way。 You can think of it as
the accounting equivalent of Newton’s third law： ‘For every force there is
an equal and opposite reaction。’ Dual aspect is the basis of double…entry
bookkeeping （see below）。
The realization concept
A particularly prudent sales manager once said that an order was not an
order until the customer’s cheque had cleared； he or she had consumed the
product； had not died as a result； and； finally； had shown every indication
of wanting to buy again。 Most of us know quite different salespeople who
can ‘anticipate’ the most unlikely volume of sales。 In accounting； ine is
usually recognized as having been earned when the goods （or services） are
dispatched and the invoice sent out。 This has nothing to do with when an
order is received； how firm an order is or how likely a customer is to pay up
promptly。 It is also possible that some of the products dispatched may be
returned at some later date – perhaps for quality reasons。 This means that
ine； and consequently profit； can be brought into the business in one
period and has to be removed later on。
Obviously； if these returns can be estimated accurately； then an
adjustment can be made to ine at the time。 So the ‘sales ine’ figure
that is seen at the top of a profit and loss account is the value of the goods
dispatched and invoiced to customers in the period in question。
The