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which I dealt incidentally in this discussion。
MEDITATIONS ON THE FIRST PHILOSOPHY
IN WHICH THE EXISTENCE OF GOD
AND THE DISTINCTION BETWEEN MIND
AND BODY ARE DEMONSTRATED。9
Meditation I。
Of the things which may be brought within the sphere of the
doubtful。
It is now some years since I detected how many were the
false beliefs that I had from my earliest youth admitted as
true； and how doubtful was everything I had since constructed
on this basis； and from that time I was convinced that I must
once for all seriously undertake to rid myself of all the
opinions which I had formerly accepted； and mence to build
anew from the foundation； if I wanted to establish any firm
and permanent structure in the sciences。 But as this
enterprise appeared to be a very great one； I waited until I
had attained an age so mature that I could not hope that at
any later date I should be better fitted to execute my design。
This reason caused me to delay so long that I should feel that
I was doing wrong were I to occupy in deliberation the time
that yet remains to me for action。 To…day； then； since very
opportunely for the plan I have in view I have delivered my
mind from every care ＇and am happily agitated by no passions＇
and since I have procured for myself an assured leisure in a
peaceable retirement； I shall at last seriously and freely
address myself to the general upheaval of all my former
opinions。
Now for this object it is not necessary that I should
show that all of these are false￥I shall perhaps never arrive
at this end。 But inasmuch as reason already persuades me that
I ought no less carefully to withhold my assent from matters
which are not entirely certain and indubitable than from those
which appear to me manifestly to be false； if I am able to
find in each one some reason to doubt； this will suffice to
justify my rejecting the whole。 And for that end it will not
be requisite that I should examine each in particular； which
would be an endless undertaking； for owing to the fact that
the destruction of the foundations of necessity brings with it
the downfall of the rest of the edifice； I shall only in the
first place attack those principles upon which all my former
opinions rested。
All that up to the present time I have accepted as most
true and certain I have learned either from the senses or
through the senses； but it is sometimes proved to me that
these senses are deceptive； and it is wiser not to trust
entirely to anything by which we have once been deceived。
But it may be that although the senses sometimes deceive
us concerning things which are hardly perceptible； or very far
away； there are yet many others to be met with as to which we
cannot reasonably have any doubt； although we recognise them
by their means。 For example； there is the fact that I am
here； seated by the fire； attired in a dressing gown； having
this paper in my hands and other similar matters。 And how
could I deny that these hands and this body are mine； were it
not perhaps that I pare myself to certain persons； devoid
of sense； whose cerebella are so troubled and clouded by the
violent vapours of black bile； that they constantly assure us
that they think they are kings when they are really quite
poor； or that they are clothed in purple when they are really
without covering； or who imagine that they have an earthenware
head or are nothing but pumpkins or are made of glass。 But
they are mad； and I should not be any the less insane were I
to follow examples so extravagant。
At the same time I must remember that I am a man； and
that consequently I am in the habit of sleeping； and in my
dreams representing to myself the same things or sometimes
even less probable things； than do those who are insane in
their waking moments。 How often has it happened to me that in
the night I dreamt that I found myself in this particular
place； that I was dressed and seated near the fire； whilst in
reality I was lying undressed in bed！ At this moment it does
indeed seem to me that it is with eyes awake that I am looking
at this paper； that this head which I move is not asleep； that
it is deliberately and of set purpose that I extend my hand
and perceive it； what happens in sleep does not appear so
clear nor so distinct as does all this。 But in thinking over
this I remind myself that on many occasions I have in sleep
been deceived by similar illusions； and in dwelling carefully
on this reflection I see so manifestly that there are no
certain indications by which we may clearly distinguish
wakefulness from sleep that I am lost in astonishment。 And my
astonishment is such that it is almost capable of persuading
me that I now dream。
Now let us assume that we are asleep and that all these
particulars； e。g。 that we open our eyes； shake our head；
extend our hands； and so on； are but false delusions； and let
us reflect that possibly neither our hands nor our whole body
are such as they appear to us to be。 At the same time we must
at least confess that the things which are represented to us
in sleep are like painted representations which can only have
been formed as the counterparts of something real and true；
and that in this way those general things at least； i。e。 eyes；
a head； hands； and a whole body； are not imaginary things； but
things really existent。 For； as a matter of fact； painters；
even when they study with the greatest skill to represent
sirens and satyrs by forms the most strange and extraordinary；
cannot give them natures which are entirely new； but merely
make a certain medley of the members of different animals； or
if their imagination is extravagant enough to invent something
so novel that nothing similar has ever before been seen； and
that then their work represents a thing purely fictitious and
absolutely false； it is certain all the same that the colours
of which this is posed are necessarily real。 And for the
same reason； although these general things； to with； ＇a body＇；
eyes； a head； hands； and such like； may be imaginary； we are
bound at the same time to confess that there are at least some
other objects yet more simple and more universal； which are
real and true； and of these just in the same way as with
certain real colours； all these images of things which dwell
in our thoughts； whether true and real or false and fantastic；
are formed。
To such a class of things pertains corporeal nature in
general； and its extension； the figure of extended things；
their quantity or magnitude and number； as also the place in
which they are； the time which measures their duration； and so
on。
That is possibly why our reasoning is not unjust when we
conclude from this that Physics； Astronomy； Medicine and all
other sciences which have as their end the consideration of
posite things； are very dubious and uncertain； but that
Arithmetic； Geometry and other sciences of that kind which
only treat of things that are very simple and very general；
without taking great trouble to ascertain whether they are
actually existent or not； contain some measure of certainty
and an element of the indubitable。 For whether I am awake or
asleep； two and three together always form five； and the
square can never have more than four sides； and it does not
seem possible that truths so clear and apparent can be
suspected of any falsity ＇or uncertainty＇。
Nevertheless I have long had fixed in my mind the belief
that an all…powerful God existed by whom I have been created
such as I am。 But how do I know that He has not brought it to
pass that there is no earth； no heaven； no extended body； no
magnitude； no place； and that nevertheless ＇I possess the
perceptions of all these things and that＇ they seem to me to
exist just exactly as I now see them？ And； besides； as I
sometimes imagine that others deceive themselves in the things
which they think they know best； how do I know that I am not
deceived every time that I add two and three； or count the
sides of a square； or judge of things yet simpler； if anything
simpler can be imagined？ But possibly God has not desired
that I should be thus deceived； for He is said to be supremely
good。 If； however； it is contrary to His goodness to have
made me such that I constantly deceive myself； it would also
appear to be contrary to His goodness to permit me to be
sometimes deceived； and nevertheless I cannot doubt that He
does permit this。
There may indeed be those who would prefer to deny the
existence of a God so powerful； rather than believe that all
other things are uncertain。 But let us not oppose them for
the present； and grant that all that is here said of a God is
a fable； nevertheless in whatever way they suppose that I have
arrived at the state of being that I have reached￥whether they
attribute it to fate or to accident； or make out that it is by
a continual succession of antecedents； or by some other
method￥since to err and deceive oneself is a