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implications。 Do students believe that people’s willingness to obey an authority figure in
Milgram’s studies is linked to why national populations will sometimes willingly follow
tyrants like Adolf Hitler？ Are the factors that led to Milgram’s results the same ones that lead
to phenomena such as groupthink and risky shift？ Does the fact that most Americans believe
an Adolf Hitler could never do here what he did in Germany actually make us more
vulnerable to a Hitler…type if he should ever e along？ What are some ways that people
might inoculate themselves from these effects？
An elderly man suffered a severe viral infection。 Manifestations of the infection included
large blisters on his back； severe muscle and joint pain； and a conitant depressive
episode。 After three months； the man recovered pletely。 During his final visit to his
physician； as he was being given a clean bill of health； the physician remarked that his
recovery was “remarkable for a man your age。” The physician went on to say that because of
the severity of the virus； “some people just never get over the symptoms。” Before this visit；
the man had been free of pain； his depression was lifting； and he was gradually resuming his
usual level of activity。 Within two weeks； the man slipped back into his sick…role behavior of
sitting in his chair all day in front of the television。 He began telling everyone he met how ill
he was； and became convinced that he would “never get any better。” Discuss with the class
the psychological mechanisms at work with this man’s “illness” and the ments made by
his physician on that last visit。
4。 What would be the consequences of a race of people who were not “social animals；” who
were shy and fearful of all people and preferred to be in isolation？
5。 Should parents of seventh and eighth graders try to help their children resist the norms of a
peer…group drug culture？ If so； how？ What other adolescent； and adult； behaviors are
subject to peer influence？ Is this influence harmful or not？ 6。 What activities would
you arrange for your children if you wanted them to be very social； outgoing extroverts； or
the opposite； social introverts？
6。 Ask the class how they might use the cognitive dissonance principle that “changing behavior
changes attitudes” to design programs for：
。 Increasing a person’s low self…esteem
。 Modifying a deprecatory attitude toward student protesters
。 Decreasing a racial prejudice in schoolchildren
Now reverse the process and design new programs using the principle that “changing
attitudes changes behaviors” for the same problems。 Which principle do you think the class
will be more successful using？ Why？
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CHAPTER 17： SOCIAL PROCESSES AND RELATIONSHIPS
SUPPLEMENTAL LECTURE MATERIAL
Cognitive Dissonance
A high school girl believed the use of drugs to be physically harmful and morally wrong。 She
was invited to a party given by a group from her class that she admired。 Other people at the
party were using cocaine and drinking wine and； because she wanted to be accepted by the
group； she decided she should do what the others were doing。 The next day she was tense and
unfortable because she had done something that she believed to be wrong。 She was suffering
from cognitive dissonance。
The theory of cognitive dissonance was proposed in the 1950s by psychologist Leon Festinger。 It
is a very simple theory； but one applicable to an enormous range of situations。 Cognitive
dissonance is defined as a state of tension that exists when two （or more） cognitions are
psychologically inconsistent； with that inconsistency creating tension。 Festinger considered
tension motivating because when tension occurs； there is a motive to reduce or eliminate it。
“Cognition” is a broad term that includes perception； reasoning； beliefs； values； and attitudes…any
form of knowledge or knowing。 “Psychologically inconsistent” means that the individual
possessing the cognitions perceives them to be inpatible or in conflict。 This is the Achilles
heel of the theory； because psychological inconsistency is subjective； it cannot be directly
observed and measured。
Dissonance sometimes occurs after making a decision that is irrevocable； or that would be very
difficult to reverse。 Suppose a high school senior has narrowed his choice of colleges to two； both
equally attractive。 He has to make a decision and choose one of the schools。 When he chooses
one； he has to give up the things he likes about the other。 What are the dissonant cognitions？ I
chose school A； therefore I have to give up all things I liked about school B。 What does he do to
reduce the dissonance？ He accentuates the positive aspects of school A and the negative aspects
of school B。 He may decide that the things he liked about school B are not really important。
Two students have identical new cars。 One student’s car was a gift from her parents while the
other student had saved for several years to buy her car； doing without things she would like to
have in order to accumulate the money for the car。 A well…known automotive magazine assigns
the car its “lemon of the year award；” claiming that the car is unsafe and undependable； and that
it is poorly engineered and designed。 Which student is likely to feel more unfortable about
the magazine’s negative evaluation of the car？ Obviously； the student who had to save money to
buy it。 What are her dissonant cognitions？ “I spent my savings for this car。 The car is a lemon。”
What can she do to reduce the dissonance？ She can discredit the magazine and the database that
was used for the evaluation。 She can also remind herself of the things she likes about the car。
For most of us； there are things we would like to have that we cannot。 When the desire for
something” is very important to us； we may have dissonant cognitions that make us tense and
unhappy。 For example； suppose you are in love with a person who does not love you。 What are
the dissonant cognitions？ I would like to have a serious relationship with Lucy。 Lucy doesn’t
love me。” What do people do to reduce the dissonance in this type of situation？ One method is
the “sour grapes” approach。 “Lucy isn’t so great after all。 She is bowlegged and chews with her
mouth open。” The expensive sweater is not practical and the sports car that is so appealing is the
type of car driven by people who are too status…conscious。 The group that did not ask you to join
is posed of snobs that you would not want to associate with anyway。
Jenny and Jack are both in danger of failing a course。 The instructor gives a take…home exam that
students must sign； declaring that they did not receive help from another person。 Both Jenny and
Jack have friends who took the course and made good grades； and who could help them； and
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PSYCHOLOGY AND LIFE
both feel that cheating is wrong。 Jenny gives in to temptation and gets help from her friend； gets a
good grade on the final； passes the course； but now she suffers from cognitive dissonance。 What
are Jenny’s dissonant cognitions？ “I think it is wrong to cheat。 I cheated。” How will she reduce
the dissonance？ She will probably not feel as strongly about cheating。 She may also belittle the
amount of help she got from the friend； telling herself that she did most of the work； and that she
would have passed the course without the help of the friend。
Jack did not succumb to the temptation of getting his friend to help him。 He made a poor grade
on the final and failed the course。 He may have some dissonance； too。 What are Jack’s dissonant
cognitions？ “If I had cheated I would have passed the course。 I didn’t cheat。” What will he do to
reduce his dissonance？ Jack is likely to bee more strongly opposed to cheating than before。
He may feel badly about failing； but will feel good about his integrity and strength of his
convictions。
These next applications are similar to dissonance due to the investment of time； money； or effort；
but in these cases； the person gets little or nothing in exchange for the investment。 If we give
money to a charity； we convince ourselves that it is a worthy cause。 If we work for a political
candidate； we convince ourselves that the candidate is a good and petent person。 If we paint
our room； we convince ourselves that we have made a big improvement。 If we gave money to a
charity we didn’t trust； worked for a candidate who is a scoundrel； or made the room dingy by
painting it； our time； money； or effort would have been wasted； and our self…esteem would suffer
because we did something stupid； so we seek to justify our behavior by convincing ourselves that
our time； money； or effort served a good cause。
In 1978； nine hundred members of the People’s Temple in Guyana fed a poisonous drink to their
children； drank it themselves； and lay down on the ground to die。 People were attracted to the
Temple’s charismatic leader； Jun Jones； and were initially drawn to his meetings in San Francisco
by Jones’ emotional message of love and hope。 Small demands were made on new members； like
giving one per