按键盘上方向键 ← 或 → 可快速上下翻页，按键盘上的 Enter 键可回到本书目录页，按键盘上方向键 ↑ 可回到本页顶部！
————未阅读完？加入书签已便下次继续阅读！
by Jones’ emotional message of love and hope。 Small demands were made on new members； like
giving one percent of their ines and giving one night a week to a cause。 At this point；
dissonance due to inadequate justification could occur。 The dissonant cognitions were； “I’m
giving of my time and money。 Why am I doing this？” Was giving time and money justified based
on belief in the cause？ As the mitment to the cause increased； Jones began to ask for more
money and more time； until the members had given all they owned to the Temple and were
neglecting family and other responsibilities to serve the Temple。
Once individuals were thoroughly mitted to Jones and the People’s Temple； another aspect
of cognitive dissonance was likely to bee evident； that due to inconsistency between
mitment and information。 Before the People’s Temple moved from San Francisco to an
isolated area in Guyana； criticism of Jones and his group began to appear in the media。 Suppose
you were a mitted member of his group； and you heard criticism of the group or its leader。
You may have had the dissonant cognitions： “I have given all I have to the Temple。 The media
claim that our leader is an insincere； evil person。” The first cognition is irrevocable； and leaving
the group would be economically and psychologically difficult。 The easiest way to reduce the
dissonance would be to deny the adverse information and to denigrate the source。 Little by little
the people of the People’s Temple were firmly entrapped。
The account of the recruitment； mitment； and death of the followers of the People’s Temple
provides a powerful example of some of the concepts of social psychology； such as persuasion；
conformity； and obedience； as well as cognitive dissonance。 The account could also be analyzed
in terms of the failure in critical thinking made by the people whose faulty reasoning paved the
way for their death in the jungles of Guyana。
346
CHAPTER 17： SOCIAL PROCESSES AND RELATIONSHIPS
Establishing Trust
One of the essential elements in a long…term relationship is the development of a sense of trust
between partners。 This confident belief in the integrity and reliability of the other person is often
achieved through a process of reciprocal self…disclosure of personal information。 At the beginning
of any relationship； there is little self…revelation and； thus； no basis for trust。 The term social
penetration refers to “overt interpersonal behaviors that occur in social interaction； as well as
internal subjective processes that precede； acpany； and follow overt exchange” （Shaw &
Costanzo； 1982； p。 153）。 Social penetration theory consists of three basic divisions of analysis。
· Altman and Taylor （1973） outlined their assumptions about the structure of
personality； deeming it necessary to describe their assumptions because the process
of social penetration involves an overlap in exploration of the personalities involved
in social relationships。 This overlap is the beginning of trust。
· The second category of the theory details how costs and rewards influence the
process of social penetration； and specifies the forces that underlie the growth of
interpersonal relationships。
。 The last category describes the particular aspects of the social penetration process。
This may be the most significant part of the theory； as it deals with such factors as
movement into the intimate regions of a relationship； involving the blending of
interactions in both established and new areas of exploration。
The theory of social penetration proposes that trust begins when one person initiates self…
disclosure。 If the other person responds in kind； it indicates that trust has been accepted； and the
basis for a closer relationship has been established。 The partners continue to trade self…
disclosures； gradually moving through deeper levels of intimacy； so long as each level is
mutually satisfying。 The final level of intimacy that is achieved will depend on the needs and
interpersonal skills of the two people involved。 In some cases； the relationship will stop at a more
superficial level。 In others； it will continue to grow and deepen。
According to Jourard （1964）； there is an optimal level of self…disclosure for any healthy； well…
adjusted individual。 A person who never discloses will not be able to have close； meaningful
relationships with other individuals。 Conversely； a person who goes too far by disclosing
everything to anyone who will listen is viewed as maladjusted and excessively self…centered。
Ideally （according to Jourard）； one should disclose a moderate amount of personal information to
most acquaintances and reveal a lot about oneself to a very few close friends。
Trust； as displayed through disclosure； is a major dimension in human fears of rejection； ridicule；
and betrayal that haunt relationships。 Trust washes away the fears of rejection； ridicule； and
betrayal that haunt the existence of many。 Trust paves the road to friendship and intimacy； it is at
the core of love for another person and the acceptance of oneself
A climate of trust can be established by doing the following：
。 Make it acceptable for other people to talk openly about themselves。
。 Reciprocate with your own openness。
。 Express support and unconditional acceptance of your loved ones； although you may
disapprove of some of their specific behaviors （make them aware of this difference）。
。 Be consistent but not rigid in your standards； values； and behavior。
。 Be available to listen； express warmth； and empathize； even when you do not have
an answer or a solution。
。 Do not make promises you do not intend to keep or cannot deliver。
347
PSYCHOLOGY AND LIFE
You Only Get One Chance to Make a First Impression
First impressions can have a lasting effect on how we see others and on how they see us。 Some
researchers claim that first impressions are typically formed within the first 8 to 10 seconds of
first seeing someone； often before they ever actually speak to us or shake our hand。 In those first
few seconds； we appear to “size up” the person according to their physical appearance； their eye
contact； their facial expressions； their manner of dress； their body language； and their overall
demeanor。 Then we pare our perceptions of the person to our previous experiences with
others of similar demeanor； etc。； and develop a “thumbnail sketch” of what type of person we
believe this person is。 Much of this is done unconsciously and automatically。 But once formed； it
can be difficult to change。 Because of our tendency to selectively perceive only the aspects of the
person’s behavior that fit our first impression； the person will have to behave in a manner that is
pervasively and enduringly inconsistent with our impression before we will change it。
Additionally； since the way we behave toward the person can affect the way he or she behaves
toward us； our first impression may cause us to behave in ways that almost guarantee a response
that fits our first impression。 This results in a “self…fulfilling prophecy” which makes it unlikely
that we will ever significantly change our impression of the person。
It is for these reasons that making a good first impression； or at least a neutral first impression；
can be so important。 In a situation such as a job interview； in which you may have only 20 or 30
minutes to interact with the interviewer； there is usually not enough time to overe a negative
first impression。 Recruiters have told me that something as simple as the way an interviewee
shakes his or her hands can sometimes leave a lasting impression that positively or negatively
affects the remainder of the interview。
After reviewing the power of first impressions； you might want to have students generate ways
they can pursue self…enhancement and other…enhancement strategies in order to try and create as
positive a first impression as possible。
BIOGRAPHICAL PROFILES
Solomon Asch （1907 —1996）
Solomon Asch obtained his Ph。D。 at Columbia University in 1932。 He subsequently taught at the
New School for Social Research in New York City and at Rutgers University。 Asch’s research and
conceptual orientation in social psychology were influenced strongly by the Gestalt school；
particularly as represented in the writings of his close friend； Max Wertheimer。 Asch is best
known for his pioneering research on conformity and the effects of group pressure on the
behavior of the individual。 Among his major works is the classic text Social Psychology； published
in 1952。
Leon Festinger （b。 1919）
Born in New York City； Festinger obtained both his M。A。 and Ph。D。 at the State University of
Iowa。 He taught at various schools； including Iowa； Rochester； MIT； the University of Minnesota；
and Stanford University。 In 1968； he joined the New School for Social Research in New York City。
Believing that humans are thinking animals desiring to bring order to life； Festinger argued that
people often make special efforts to reduce cognitive inconsistencies。 His theory of cognitive
dissonance； proposed in 1957； wa