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result of the interaction of exogenous and endogenous influences。
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CHAPTER 5： PERCEPTION
DISCOVERING PSYCHOLOGY
PROGRAM 3： THE BEHAVING BRAIN
Overview
The structure and position of the brain： how neurons function； how information is collected and
transmitted； and how chemical reactions determine every thought； feeling； and action。
Key Issues
The biology of the brain； how the brain processes information； the electroencephalogram （EEG）；
neurometric evaluation； the effects of drugs on the functions of the brain； the brain’s own manufactured
chemicals； and neurotransplantation。
Demonstrations
Multiple brain wave recording to reveal various types of brain malfunction。
Effects of chemicals on learning and memory in rats。
New Interviews
John Gabrieli illustrates how the brain stores and retrieves information。
PROGRAM 7： SENSATION AND PERCEPTION
Overview
Explores how we make contact with the world outside our brain and body。 See how biological；
cognitive； social； and environmental influences shape our personal sense of reality； and gain
an understanding of how psychologists use perceptual errors to study how the constructive
process of perception works。
Key Issues
Visual illusions； the biology of perception； the visual pathway； how the brain processes
information during perception； sensory feedback in visual perception； and perceptual
constancy。
Demonstrations
Sensory feedback in visual perception。 A Stanford student demonstrates the problems football
quarterbacks face in the adjustment to special kinesthetic cues with distortion goggles that
displace feedback from the perceived visual field。
Perceptual constancy。 Philip Zimbardo demonstrates visual misperception in the Ames
distorted room in the Exploratorium in San Francisco。
Interviews
Nobel Prize winner David Hubel explains the mapping of the reaction of receptor cells along
the visual pathway of primates。 Hubel’s award…winning experiment of the response of neurons
to electrical activity in the visual cortex of a cat illustrates his point。
Misha Pavel uses puter graphics to demonstrate how the visual system of the brain breaks
down and rebines visual stimulation into recognizable； coherent images。
FILMS AND VIDEOS
A Touch of Sensibility （1981）。 BBC； 50 minutes
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PSYCHOLOGY AND LIFE
This NOVA presentation discusses the importance of touch and the effects of touch deprivation。
This film examines the importance of touch for development at various age levels。 Many interesting
areas of research are cited。
Brain Power （1983）。 IU （LCA）； 11 minutes
Discusses three principles of perception that affect how a person receives information： recognition；
interpretation； and expectation。 Throughout the film； visual cues； puzzles； and optical illusions
remind the viewer that one’s perceptions can be easily fooled。 A brief； clever film that stimulates
students’ interest in sensation and perception。
Human Perception： A Collection of Demonstrations and Effects （1986）。 Hanover； N。H。：
Dartmouth College； Office of Instructional Services and Educational Research。 Contains real…time
segments； single frames； picture and chapter stops。
The Mind： Pain and Healing （1988）。 HARR； 24 minutes
Reviews the influence of the mind on people’s ability to control pain and on their ability to promote
physical healing。 An excellent film。 Traces the progress of a woman through a three…week clinic
program to reduce chronic； long…term pain。 The changes in her movement and affect are dramatic。
Demonstrates the placebo effect； and shows how cues； such as a doctor’s white coat； can trigger the
release of endorphins to reduce pain。 In the final segment； a cancer patient discusses how the
interaction of cognitive therapy with physical therapy has increased her life expectancy and her life
quality。
The Senses： Eyes and Ears （1985）。 FFHS； 26 minutes
Visual and auditory distance receptors are discussed。 Demonstrations of how each processes
information are also shown。
The Senses： Skin Deep （1985）。 FFHS； 26 minutes
The sense receptors that depend on immediate contact with the world—taste buds； olfactory cells；
and touch sensors—are examined。
CASE STUDY LECTURE LAUNCHER
One night in 1965； a United Airlines Boeing 727 started a steady descent to Chicago’s O’Hare
Airport from an altitude of 22；000 feet。 Nineteen miles off the shore of Lake Michigan； the plane
plunged into the lake。 One month later； also at night； an American Airlines Boeing 727； preparing
to land at Kentucky’s Boone County Airport； followed the thread of the Ohio River toward the
runway which began at the river’s steep south bank。 The plane failed to make the runway； and
crashed into the bank； 12 feet below the runway。 One night in early 1966； an Al Nippon Airlines
Boeing 727 headed toward Tokyo Bay。 The pilot could see the lights of Tokyo and Yokohama
clearly。 He requested and received permission to approach using visual cues rather than relying
exclusively on the instruments of the plane。 The pilot had not even let down the wheels or extended
the flaps when； six and a half miles from the runway； the plane dove into Tokyo Bay at 240 knots。
Preliminary analyses of these and other similar cases showed that all of the accidents occurred at
night； under clear weather conditions； with the planes flying over a dark area of water or land。 In
every case； irregular patterns of light （as opposed to grids of neatly intersecting lines of streetlights）
in the distance had been visible to the pilots。
In a way； the new Boeing 727 design was partly responsible for the accidents； because it was so
well engineered。 In earlier； less stable models； feedback from vibrations； sounds and kinesthetic
sensations would have warned pilots that they were descending too rapidly。 However； it was more
than an improved design that had caused the accidents。
Using a flight simulator； engineering psychologist Conrad Kraft found that an error in the pilot’s
visual perception was responsible for each of the accidents。 Pilots making a visually guided
approach over a dark terrain relied on the relatively constant visual angle between their planes and
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CHAPTER 5： PERCEPTION
the distant light patterns in determining their altitudes。 If they were approaching flat terrain； their
altitude estimates were generally correct； but if the terrain sloped upward； with the farthest lights
higher than the closer ones； even the most experienced pilots descended to dangerously low
altitudes。 With no visual information from the “black hole” below them； the pilots overestimated
their distance from the ground and inappropriately adjusted their descent angles。
Why didn’t the pilots also use their altimeters； which indicated altitude accurately？ When landing
an airplane； a pilot must monitor several functions at once–such as air speed； engine settings；
altitude； glide slope； angle of attack； and heading–while also responding to air traffic controller
directions and watching for other aircraft。 With all of these responsibilities； especially when
visibility is good； pilots may fail to check their altimeters and instead rely on visual cues from the
cockpit。 After Dr。 Kraft solved the mystery of the accidents； mercial airlines around the world
informed pilots of the conditions under which they might misjudge altitude on approach to
landing。 Psychologists such as Dr。 Kraft study perception in order to learn how the major sensory
systems of the body help （and sometimes trick） us in gathering information about the environments
in which we live； work； and play。
85
CHAPTER 6
Mind； Consciousness； and Alternate States
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
On pletion of this chapter； students should be able to：
1。 Identify and provide examples of the three levels of consciousness
2。 Describe the origins of the mind—body problem； and Descartes’ mechanistic approach to it
via his theory of the animal machine
Explain the philosophical and theoretical differences between dualism and monism
4。 Define the concepts of the personal construction of reality； the cultural construction of
reality； and the significance of consensual validation of both
5。 Define and give examples of circadian rhythms
6。 Identify the five stages of sleep； as well as the functions of REM sleep
7。 Explain the four major types of sleep disorders
8。 Describe both the basic premises of Freudian dream analysis and the activation synthesis
hypothesis of dreaming
9。 Explain extended states of consciousness； such as hypnosis； meditation； and hallucination
10。 Describe the effects of psychoactive substances
CHAPTER OUTLINE
I。 The Contents of Consciousness
A。 This chapter discusses ordinary states of consciousness and the mind–body problem； as
well as the more unusual experiences that are part of the human potential； such as
hallucinations； hypnosis； and dreams
B。 Awareness and Consciousness
C。 Consciousness is an ambiguous term that can refer to a general state of mind or to its
specific contents
1。 The contents of