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the belief that a solution has worked previously may impair
problem solving in the current situation
d） Mental sets are preexisting states of mind； habit； or attitude
that can enhance the quality and speed of perceiving and
problem solving； under some but not all conditions
V。 Judging and Deciding
A。 Definitions
1。 Bounded rationality suggests that decisions and judgment might not be
as good； as rational； as they always could be； but that they result from
applying limited “rational” resources to situations that require
immediate action
2。 Judgment is the process by which you form opinions； reach
conclusions； and make critical evaluations of events and people。
Judgments are often made spontaneously； without prompting
3。 Decision making is the process of choosing between alternatives；
selecting and rejecting available options
4。 Judgment and decision making are interrelated processes
B。 Heuristics and Judgment
1。 Heuristics are informal rules of thumb that provide shortcuts；
reducing the plexity of making judgments； they generally increase
the efficiency of thought processes
a） The availability heuristic suggests that people often make
decisions based on information that is readily available in
memory。 The availability heuristic may lead to faulty
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PSYCHOLOGY AND LIFE
decisions when：
（i） Memory processes give rise to a biased sample or
information
（ii） Information stored in memory is inaccurate
b） The representativeness heuristic is captures the idea that people
use past information to make judgments about similar
circumstances in the present。 The representativeness heuristic
may lead to faulty decisions when：
（i） It causes you to ignore other types of relevant
information
（ii） You fail to be guided by representativeness
c） The anchoring heuristic suggests that people often do not adjust
sufficiently up or down from an original starting value when
judging the probable value of some oute。 The anchoring
heuristic may lead to faulty decisions when：
（i） The anchoring information has no validity
C。 The Psychology of Decision Making
1。 Framing of gains and losses
a） A frame is a particular description of a choice； most often
perceived in terms of gains or losses
（i） Framing a decision in terms of gains or in terms of
losses can influence the decision that is made
（ii） Knowledge of framing effects can help you
understand how people e to radically different
decisions； when faced with the same evidence
2。 Decision aversion is a situation in which the individual will try hard to
avoid making any decision at all
a） Decision aversion is most often seen in the tendency to avoid
making difficult decisions
b） Psychological forces at work in this process include：
（i） People do not like making decisions that will result in
some people having more of some desired good and
others less
（ii） People are able to anticipate the regret they will feel if
the option chosen turns out worse than the rejected
option
（iii） People do not like being accountable for decisions
that lead to bad outes
（iv） People do not like to make decisions for other people
3。 In some situations； people are decision seeking。 People are generally
happier to make decisions for themselves than to let others make
decisions for them
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CHAPTER 9： COGNITIVE PROCESSES
DISCUSSION QUESTIONS
1。 The “Turing Test” is used to determine whether a puter possesses artificial intelligence。
In the test； a participant sits at a puter in one room and has a conversation with a
puter set up in another room。 If the participant cannot tell whether he or she is having
a conversation with a real person or with a puter； then the puter passes the test。
The participant can ask anything that he or she wants； there are no restrictions on
questions。 Have the class discuss what questions they would ask if they were participating
in a Turing test。 What responses would lead them to believe that they were having a
conversation with a puter or with a human？
2。 Almost everyone has experienced a “flash of insight” when the solution to a problem
seemed to appear suddenly in one’s mind。 Using personal experience as “data；” have the
class indicate how they would characterize the nature of insight？ What sort of process
seems to occur？ What triggers it？
3。 What is the motivation for engaging in reasoning for its own sake； as in solving crossword
puzzles？
4。 Have the class make simple judgments about the length of two lines drawn on the
chalkboard or the weight of typical classroom objects。 After the students make their
decision； ask them how they arrived at it。 Simple； straightforward decisions are often made
without conscious reflection or deliberation。 People simply “know” the correct answer。
What does this say about cognitive processes？
5。 Have the class consider the cognitive processes involved in reasoning。 What sort of
differences might you expect to see in these processes between a child of 4 and a child of
16？ What about those between a child of 16 and an adult of 45？ What about those between
an adult of 60 and an adult of 85？
6。 An interesting offshoot of this topic is the question of where is this taking us。 While for
now； AI is typically used in game and simulation programs and to help operate simple
logic functions of some mechanical devices； as it gets more sophisticated its applications
will continue to expand。 This raises the question of whether we will ever develop an AI
program as sophisticated as the human brain。 Some researchers believe this is just a matter
of time； others are not so sure。 But should we ever succeed at this； it raises some interesting
moral and spiritual questions。 Would such a machine be “conscious” and self…aware？
Would such a “self…aware” machine have “personality” or a “soul？” If we succeeded in
creating a machine with full self…awareness； would it be entitled to legal rights？ What
ethical considerations would e into play in regard to reprogramming this machine or
shutting it down？ While right now this is a question that lies in the realm of science fiction；
it may someday bee science reality。 How do students feel about this？ Do they believe
that we should even be trying to create such a machine？ What pros and cons do they see to
these efforts？
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PSYCHOLOGY AND LIFE
SUPPLEMENTAL LECTURE MATERIAL
Fallacies in the Use of Language
We often have lapses in critical thinking as we speak and write。 A fallacy is a plausible argument
that rests on invalid or false inferences。 Fallacies are often used unintentionally； but they may be
used intentionally when an effort is being made to influence the listener or reader。
。 “If you know about BMW； you either own one or you want one。”
Is there anything wrong with this statement？ If so； what is wrong with it？ It is an example of the
false alternative fallacy。 It is also called dualistic or black…and…white thinking； or bifurcation。 This
fallacy occurs when it is presumed that a classification is exclusive or exhaustive。 It often takes the
form of overlooking alternatives that exist between two polar opposites。 One example of false
alternatives was written by an educator； suggesting that children should begin public school at the
age of four and that high school should end after the eleventh year。 “Twelfth grade has bee a
bore for able students and a holding tank for the rest。” Given your own abilities for critical thinking；
what are your thoughts on that statement？
。 “I asked my doctor why my mouth was so dry； and he told me that it was because my
saliva glands are not producing enough saliva。”
What do you think of the doctor’s diagnosis？ This is an example of the fallacy of begging the question；
or circularity。 This fallacy occurs when the solution to a problem is a restatement of the problem； or
when the argument for a proposition is equivalent to the proposition。 Diagnosis of mental disorders
is sometimes considered to beg the question。 Consider the following exchange。
Question： Why is he so nervous and agitated？
Answer： He has Generalized Anxiety Disorder。
Question： What does that mean？
Answer： It means that he is constantly nervous and agitated。
As the questioner； you have no more knowledge at the end of the exchange than you did at the
beginning。 You have just been given a label for what you already know。 Some examples of this
fallacy seem ridiculous； but they occur frequently and are often generally accepted。 Consider
gravity。 We all know what it is； but does it really explain why objects are attracted to each other？
No； it simply labels the fact that they are。
· “He is an innocent man。 He was tried before a jury of his peers and the prosecution was
unable to prove him guilty。”
Is the assumption of innocence justified？ This is an example of the fallacy called appeal to ignorance。
This fallacy occurs when it is argued that because we cannot prove a proposition true； it must be
false； or if we cannot prove a proposition false； it must be true。 As an example； think about this
state